Перевод: с английского на все языки

со всех языков на английский

the well is low

Толкование Перевод

1 the well is low

Макаров: вода в водоёме стоит на низком уровне, вода в колодце стоит на низком уровне

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > the well is low
2 low

I
1. [ləʋ] n

1. самый низкий уровень

to reach a new low - снова /ещё больше/ упасть (о ценах и т. п.)

the pound reached an all-time low - курс фунта упал до небывало низкого уровня

2. обыкн. pl низина

3. метеор. область низкого барометрического давления; циклон

4. 1) карт. младший козырь

2) фоска ( игральная карта от двойки до десятки)

5. спорт. самый маленький счёт

6. авт. первая, низшая скорость

2. [ləʋ] a

1. 1) низкий, невысокий

low wall [ceiling, fence, table] - низкая стена [-ий потолок, -ая изгородь, -ий стол]

low range of hills - невысокий ряд холмов

low forehead - низкий лоб

low latitudes - геогр. низкие широты

low pressure - низкое давление

low frequency - радио, тлв. низкая частота

low polymer - хим. низший полимер

low trajectory - воен. настильная /отлогая/ траектория ( полёта снаряда)

low head - малый напор воды

low cover - подрост, нижний ярус ( в лесу)

low gear - авт. низшая /первая/ передача

of (a) low stature - невысокого роста

the moon was low in the sky - луна стояла низко над горизонтом

the glass is low - ртуть в барометре опустилась (низко)

2) низкий, низменный

trees growing in low, shady places - деревья, растущие в низких тенистых местах

2. 1) низкий, ниже обычного или желаемого уровня

low price [wages, rates, temperature] - низкая цена [заработная плата, -ие ставки, -ая температура]

low attendance - плохая посещаемость

low level of employment - низкий уровень занятости, большая безработица

low visibility - плохая /слабая, ограниченная, пониженная/ видимость

low tide - отлив, малая вода

to get low - понижаться, падать

the well is low - вода в колодце /в водоёме/ стоит на низком уровне

the river is low - река обмелела

we are getting low on sugar - у нас остаётся маловато сахару

2) открытый ( об одежде)

low slippers - открытые туфли

low dress - открытое /декольтированное/ платье

low neck - глубокий вырез, декольте

3. 1) тихий, негромкий

low whisper - тихий шёпот

to speak in a low voice - говорить тихим голосом /понизив голос/

2) низкий ( о звуке)

4. низкого происхождения, низкого социального положения

all sorts of people, high and low - всякие люди, люди разных классов

a man of low birth /origin/ - человек низкого происхождения

to have a low station in life - занимать очень скромное положение

5. 1) невысокоразвитый, стоящий на низкой ступени цивилизации

low tribes - племена, стоящие на низкой ступени развития

2) биол. низший

low forms of life - низшие формы жизни /живых существ/

low organisms - низшие организмы

6. 1) вульгарный, грубый; низкий; невоспитанный

low manners - плохие манеры; вульгарные манеры

low language - сквернословие

low fellow - невоспитанный /грубый/ человек, хам

low conduct - низкое поведение, хамство

low tastes - грубые вкусы

2) низкий, подлый

low trick - подлая выходка

low cunning - коварство; изворотливость

low stunt to pull - грязная проделка

low company - подозрительная компания; ≅ шпана

7. 1) слабый, пониженный, небольшой

low pulse - слабый пульс

low state of health - слабое здоровье

low fever - небольшой /несильный/ жар

in a low condition - в плохом /жалком/ состоянии

2) слабый, подавленный

to be feeling low - чувствовать себя неважно

to be in low spirits - быть в подавленном состоянии

3) подавленный, униженный

to bring low - подавлять, угнетать; унижать

to be brought low - быть униженным, подвергнуться унижениям

8. плохой, неблагоприятный

low opinion of smb. - плохое мнение о ком-л.

low estimate of smth. - плохая оценка чего-л.; неблагоприятный отзыв о чём-л.

9. скудный, недостаточный; непитательный; истощённый, исчерпанный

low diet - а) скудное питание; б) низкокалорийная диета

in low supply - дефицитный

to run low - истощаться (о запасах и т. п.)

to be low in pocket - разг. остаться без денег

to be in low supply - быть дефицитным

oil is in low supply - нефти не хватает; нефть поступает в недостаточном количестве

our stock of coal is very low - у нас осталось очень мало угля

10. сравнительно недавний, стоящий ближе к современности ( о дате)

low Latin - поздняя /народная, средневековая/ латынь

11. ( часто Low) церк. принадлежащие к низкой церкви [см. Low Church]

♢ to be low in the lay, to be in low water - сидеть без денег /на мели/, страдать от безденежья

3. [ləʋ] adv

1. низко

low at board - на (нижнем) конце стола

to bow low - низко кланяться; отвесить низкий поклон

to aim low - целить низко

to hang low - висеть низко

to sink low in the water - глубоко погрузиться в воду

stocks are running low - запасы кончаются

I hope I shall never fall as low as that - я надеюсь, что никогда не паду так низко

he sank low in my esteem - он низко пал в моих глазах

you value yourself too low - вы недостаточно /слишком мало/ себя цените

2. 1) тихо, негромко

to speak [to talk, to read] low - говорить [разговаривать, читать] тихо

2) на низких нотах

he cannot get so low - он не может взять такую низкую ноту

3. дёшево, по дешёвой цене

to buy low - покупать дёшево, купить по дешёвке

to play low - играть по маленькой (в карты, кости и т. п.)

4. скудно; бедно, в бедности

to live low - жить в бедности, скудно питаться

5. слабо

to burn low - слабо гореть

6. поздно, недавно

you can find it as low as the 18th century - это можно обнаружить ещё и в XVIII веке

♢ to lie low - а) припасть к земле, лежать распростёртым; б) поэт. лежать во прахе, быть мёртвым; в) быть униженным; г) притаиться, молчать, выжидать

to lay low - а) опрокинуть; свалить, повалить; б) унизить; в) похоронить
II
1. [ləʋ] n

мычание

2. [ləʋ] v

мычать

НБАРС > low
3 low

1. n самый низкий уровень

to reach a new low — снова упасть

low bass — низкий бас

low tone — низкий тон

low grade — низкий сорт

low price — низкая цена

low water — низкая вода

2. n обыкн. низина

low oozy meadow — болотистая низина

topographic low — топографическая низина

3. n метеор. область низкого барометрического давления; циклон

low yield — низкий доход

low bounce — низкий прыжок

low crouch — низкий присед

low level — низкий уровень

low comedy — низкая комедия

4. n карт. младший козырь

low order bytes — младший байт

low order byte — младший байт

low cores — младшие ячейки

low byte — младший байт

5. n фоска

6. n спорт. самый маленький счёт

low play — игра по маленькой

to play for low stakes — играть по маленькой

7. n авт. первая, низшая скорость

on a low level — на низком уровне; в низших инстанциях

low speed control — управление на малых скоростях

low speed conrol — управление на малых скоростях

low rate tape — лента с малой скоростью протяжки

low explosive limit — низший предел взрываемости

8. a низкий, невысокий

low wall — низкая стена

low range of hills — невысокий ряд холмов

low forehead — низкий лоб

low latitudes — низкие широты

low pressure — низкое давление

low frequency — радио, низкая частота

low polymer — низший полимер

low trajectory — настильная траектория

low head — малый напор воды

low cover — подрост, нижний ярус

low gear — низшая передача

of low stature — невысокого роста

low cost — низкая стоимость

low grinding — низкий помол

low jar — невысокая баночка

low speed — низкая скорость

low bar — низкая перекладина

9. a низкий, низменный

trees growing in low, shady places — деревья, растущие в низких тенистых местах

low pressure warning switch — сигнализатор низкого давления

low fuel level indicator — указатель низкого уровня топлива

low core loss steel — сталь с низкими потерями в сердечнике

low standard of competitions — низкий уровень соревнований

low pressure air system — система воздуха низкого давления

10. a низкий, ниже обычного или желаемого уровня

low price — низкая цена

low attendance — плохая посещаемость

low level of employment — низкий уровень занятости, большая безработица

low visibility — плохая видимость

low tide — отлив, малая вода

to get low — понижаться, падать

the well is low — вода в колодце стоит на низком уровне

low ceiling — низкий потолок

low curling — низкие завитки

low krausen — низкие завитки

low preflight — низкий замах

low threshold — низкий порог

11. a открытый

low slippers — открытые туфли

12. a тихий, негромкий

low whisper — тихий шёпот

to speak in a low voice — говорить тихим голосом

13. a низкого происхождения, низкого социального положения

all sorts of people, high and low — всякие люди, люди разных классов

low area — циклон, область низкого давления

low level i/o — ввод - вывод низкого уровня

low rate of exchange — низкий валютный курс

very low frequencies — очень низкие частоты

year's low — наиболее низкий в течение года

14. a невысокоразвитый, стоящий на низкой ступени цивилизации

low tribes — племена, стоящие на низкой ступени развития

low risk postal area — почтовая зона малого риска

low frequency oscillator — генератор низкой частоты

straddle over low bar — перемах ноги врозь над н.ж.

low coupon bond — облигация с низкой купонной ставкой

low interest loan — ссуда с низкой процентной ставкой

15. a биол. низший

low forms of life — низшие формы жизни

low life — жизнь низших классов общества

low quality — низкое качество; низший сорт

16. a вульгарный, грубый; низкий; невоспитанный

low manners — плохие манеры; вульгарные манеры

low language — сквернословие

low fellow — невоспитанный человек, хам

low spreading — низкая степень растекания

low income family — семья с низким доходом

low center of gravity — низкий центр тяжести

low compressor — компрессор низкого давления

low friction piston — поршень низкого трения

17. a низкий, подлый

low trick — подлая выходка

low cunning — коварство; изворотливость

medium low — умеренно низкий

low pH — низкий показатель pH

low tempering — низкий отпуск

low H-bar — низкая перекладина

low arabesque — низкий арабеск

18. a слабый, пониженный, небольшой

low pulse — слабый пульс

low state of health — слабое здоровье

low roughness — слабая шероховатость

low inhibition — слабое ингибирование

low memory — память небольшой емкости

low volume — небольшой обьем; небольшой

low drag — небольшое лобовое сопротивление

19. a слабый, подавленный

to be feeling low — чувствовать себя неважно

low light — слабое освещение

low cohesion — слабая связность

low isolation — слабая развязка

low persistence — слабая стойкость

low strength gelatine — слабо желирующий желатин

20. a подавленный, униженный

to bring low — подавлять, угнетать; унижать

to be a cup too low — быть в подавленном настроении

21. a плохой, неблагоприятный

low audibility — плохая слышимость

his fortunes were at a low ebb — дела у него шли плохо

low visibility takeoff — взлет в условиях плохой видимости

low visibility landing — посадка в условиях плохой видимости

22. a скудный, недостаточный; непитательный; истощённый, исчерпанный

in low supply — дефицитный

to run low — истощаться

to be low in pocket — остаться без денег

to be in low supply — быть дефицитным

oil is in low supply — нефти не хватает; нефть поступает в недостаточном количестве

been in low supply — имел недостаточное снабжение

23. a церк. принадлежащие к низкой церкви

buy low — купить по низкой цене

low coupon — купон с низкой ставкой

low offer — предложение по низкой цене

low assay silver — серебро низкой пробы

too low — слишком низко; слишком низкий

24. adv низко

low at board — на конце стола

to bow low — низко кланяться; отвесить низкий поклон

to aim low — целить низко

to hang low — висеть низко

to sink low in the water — глубоко погрузиться в воду

stocks are running low — запасы кончаются

I hope I shall never fall as low as that — я надеюсь, что никогда не паду так низко

low enough — достаточно низкий

low priority — низкий риоритет

of low degree — низкого звания

high and low — высокий и низкий

low finish — низкая упитанность

25. adv тихо, негромко

to speak low — говорить тихо

26. adv на низких нотах

he cannot get so low — он не может взять такую низкую ноту

low inflation currency — валюта с низкими темпами инфляции

low intermediate frequency — низкая промежуточная частота

low assay — проба с низким содержанием ценного компонента

low weather operations — полеты по низким метеоминимумам

output LOW voltage — выходное напряжение низкого уровня

27. adv дёшево, по дешёвой цене

to buy low — покупать дёшево, купить по дешёвке

low priced shares — акции с низкой рыночной ценой

the goods brought low prices — товар продан по низкой цене

28. adv скудно; бедно, в бедности

to live low — жить в бедности, скудно питаться

rear lying support hang on low bar — вис лежа сзади на н.ж.

front lying support hang on low bar — вис лежа на н.ж.

very low frequency antenna — антенна диапазона СДВ

mean low water — средний уровень малых вод

low spot — углубление в шве

29. adv слабо

to burn low — слабо гореть

low fires — слабые огни

low pulse — слабый пульс

low binding — слабая связь

low coupling — слабая связь

30. adv поздно, недавно

you can find it as low as the 18th century — это можно обнаружить ещё и в XVIII веке

31. n мычание

32. v мычать

Синонимический ряд:

1. cheap (adj.) cheap; economical; inexpensive; low cost; low-cost; low-priced; popular; reasonable; uncostly; undear

2. coarse (adj.) coarse; crass; crude; gross; incult; inelegant; raw; rough; rude; uncouth; uncultivated; uncultured; unpolished; unrefined; vulgar

3. deep (adj.) bass; deep; low-pitched

4. downcast (adj.) bad; blue; cast down; chapfallen; crestfallen; dejected; depressed; disconsolate; dispirited; doleful; down; downcast; downhearted; down-in-the-mouth; downthrown; droopy; dull; gloomy; heartsick; heartsore; heavy-hearted; hipped; low-spirited; melancholic; melancholy; miserable; moody; mopey; sad; saddened; soul-sick; spiritless; sunk; unhappy; woebegone

5. flat (adj.) flat; level; squat; stumpy

6. humble (adj.) humble; insignificant; paltry; unimportant

7. ignoble (adj.) baseborn; ignoble; lowborn; meek; plain; plebeian; unennobled; unwashed

8. mean (adj.) abhorrent; abject; base; contemptible; degraded; despicable; detestable; disgraceful; disgusting; dishonorable; dishonourable; disreputable; filthy; foul; loathsome; low-down; lowly; mean; menial; nasty; obnoxious; odious; reprehensible; repugnant; rotten; servile; shabby; sordid; sorry; squalid; ugly; unbecoming; undignified; vile; wretched

9. poor (adj.) beggared; broke; destitute; dirt poor; fortuneless; impecunious; impoverished; indigent; necessitous; needy; penurious; poor; poverty-stricken; stone-broke; stony; strapped; unprosperous

10. prone (adj.) dead; prone; prostrate; supine

11. small (adj.) inferior; lesser; lower; minor; minor-league; nether; petty; secondary; small; subjacent; under

12. soft (adj.) gentle; hushed; low-key; muffled; quiet; soft; subdued

13. subaverage (adj.) subaverage; subnormal

14. unwell (adj.) ailing; dying; exhausted; expiring; feeble; indisposed; off-color; offish; poorly; sickly; sinking; underly; unwell; weak

15. bellow (verb) bellow

16. cheaply (other) cheaply; inexpensively

Антонимический ряд:

admirable; blatant; considerable; deafening; decent; elated; elevated; eminent; estimable; exalted; excited; exorbitant; happy; healthy; loud; substantial; tall

English-Russian base dictionary > low
4 well

1. n колодец

wet well — сборный колодец

dry well — высохший колодец

well chamber — сруб колодца

bored well — буровой колодец

drill well — буровой колодец

2. n родник, ключ; источник

hot well — горячий источник

holy well — чудотворный источник

well of salvation — источник спасения

wishing well — колодец или источник, где загадывают желания

3. n водоём

4. n минеральные воды

salt water disposal well — скважина для сброса соленой воды

the well is low — вода в колодце стоит на низком уровне

disposal well — скважина для поглощения сточных вод

to pump a well dry — выкачать всю воду из колодца

water from the well — вода из колодца

5. n источник, кладезь

a well of life — источник жизни

6. n лестничная клетка; пролёт лестницы

stair well — лестничный проем

well hole — лестничная клетка

well staircase — винтовая лестница

7. n шахта лифта

well center — центр буровой шахты

periscope mast well — шахта перископа

well cellar — шахта для буровой скважины

diver's well — шахта для спуска водолазов

the mine prospects well — шахта перспективна

8. n места адвокатов

placed well — занял хорошее место; занятый хорошее место

well site — место расположения скважины

placing well — занимающий хорошее место

9. n горн. скважина

turnkey well — скважина в готовом для эксплуатации состоянии

future well production — будущая производительность скважины

directional well surveying — определение искривления скважин

controlled directional well — наклонно-направленная скважина

productive capacity of a well — производительность скважины

10. n мор. кокпит

11. n тех. отстойник, зумпф

bilge well — отстойник

settling well — отстойный зумпф

12. v книжн. подниматься

tears welled up in her eyes — её глаза наполнились слезами

13. v книжн. вскипать

14. v книжн. бить ключом; хлынуть, брызнуть

the blood was welling out from the wound — из раны хлестала кровь

15. v книжн. переполняться; литься через край

his heart welled over with joy — его сердце преисполнилось радостью

rounded-edge well — потенциальная яма с закругленными краями

16. n добро; благо

I wish him well — я желаю ему добра

17. n собир. здоровые

the sick are often impatient with the well — больных часто раздражают здоровые

well baby — здоровый ребенок

devilishly well done — чертовски здорово сделано

18. a обыкн. здоровый; выздоровевший

is she well or ill? — она здорова или больна?

I am not very well today — мне сегодня нездоровится

to feel well — чувствовать себя хорошо

to look well — хорошо выглядеть; иметь цветущий вид

I am practically a well man — я практически здоров

19. a хороший, в удовлетворительном состоянии

all is well — всё в порядке, всё хорошо

all is not well with him — у него не всё благополучно

to keep a mechanism well greased — хорошо смазывать механизм

if all goes well with us — если у нас всё будет благополучно

he deserves to be well licked — он заслуживает хорошей порки

this material tailors well — из этого материала хорошо шить

this land yields well — эта земля приносит хороший урожай

20. a зажиточный, состоятельный; процветающий

well off — состоятельный

be well off — быть зажиточным; быть в хорошем положении

21. a удачный

it was well for you that nobody saw you — тебе повезло, что тебя никто не видел

well - made composition — удачная композиция

to time oneself well — удачно выбрать время прихода

22. a желательный, целесообразный

it might be well for you to leave — возможно, вам следовало бы уехать

23. adv хорошо, отлично; удачно; благополучно

the work is well done — работа сделана отлично

land that pays well — земля, которая приносит хороший доход

the dinner was well served up — обед был хорошо сервирован

well - prepared athlete — хорошо подготовленный спортсмен

the theory is well grounded — теория хорошо обоснована

his speech went over well — его речь была принята хорошо

24. adv положительно, благоприятно; одобрительно

25. adv зажиточно

to live well — жить в достатке

26. adv значительно

he must be well over fifty — ему, вероятно, далеко за пятьдесят

well on in life — немолодой, пожилой

I am well forward with my work — моя работа значительно продвинулась, я уже много сделал

it is well up in the list — это где-то в начале списка

well in advance — значительно раньше

well after — значительно позже

well below — значительно ниже

well above — значительно выше

27. adv совершенно, полностью

he was well out of sight — он совсем исчез из виду

you may well say so! — совершенно верно !

28. adv разумно, с полным основанием; справедливо

I could not well refuse — я никак не мог отказать

everything turned out well — всё обошлось благополучно

29. adv тщательно

shake the bottle well — перед употреблением взбалтывать

a well thought-out plan — тщательно продуманный план

30. adv очень, весьма

I like him well — он мне очень нравится

the child is well adjusted — ребёнок очень общителен

to look frightfully well — очень хорошо выглядеть

the play stages well — пьеса очень сценична

to know right well — очень хорошо знать

very well — очень хорошо

31. adv вполне

it may well be true — это вполне возможно

you may well be surprised — вы имеете все основания удивляться

he could well afford a new car — он вполне мог бы купить новую в сочетаниях

that is just as well — ну что ж, жалеть не стоит

as well as — также; так же как; в дополнение; кроме того; не только … но и

he can never let well alone — он всегда недоволен, он никогда не удовлетворён

to turn out well — окончиться благополучно; оказаться к лучшему

to go well together — подходить друг к другу; гармонировать

to be doing well — поправляться

mother and child are doing well — мать и ребёнок чувствуют себя хорошо

well done ! — здорово!, хорошо!

well said! — хорошо сказано!

well met! — какая приятная встреча

it may well be — вполне возможно

to feel pretty well — чувствовать себя вполне прилично

32. int ну!

well, you of all people! — ну, уж от вас никак не ожидал!

well, I declare! — ну, скажу я вам!; ну и ну!, нечего сказать!

acreage per well — нефтеносная площадь, приходящаяся на одну скважину

33. int итак

well, then she said — итак, после этого она заявила

Синонимический ряд:

1. abundantly (adj.) abundantly; considerably; quite

2. adeptly (adj.) adeptly; efficiently; skillfully

3. adequately (adj.) adequately; favorably; properly

4. fine (adj.) favorable; fine; good; satisfactory

5. fitting (adj.) appropriate; befitting; fitting; proper; suitable

6. healthy (adj.) fit; hale; hardy; healthy; hearty; right; robust; sane; sound; strong; trim; well-conditioned; well-liking; whole; wholesome

7. prosperous (adj.) comfortable; easy; prosperous; substantial; well-fixed; well-heeled; well-to-do

8. successful (adj.) fortunate; happy; lucky; providential; successful; well-off

9. source (noun) derivation; fount; fountain; fountainhead; inception; mother; origin; provenance; provenience; root; rootage; rootstock; source; spring; wellhead; wellspring; whence

10. course (verb) course; flow; gush; pour; rush; stream; surge

11. issue (verb) issue; ooze; spurt; swell

12. afond (other) abundantly; adequately; afond; altogether; amply; clear; completely; entirely; fully; perfectly; roundly; sufficiently; thoroughly; utterly; wholly

13. appropriately (other) acceptably; appropriately; becomingly; fittingly; judiciously; politely; properly; reasonably; right; satisfactorily; suitably

14. aright (other) accurately; aright; befittingly; correctly; decently; decorously; efficiently; fitly; justly; nicely; rightly; skillfully

15. considerately (other) considerately; generously; heedfully; kindly; thoughtfully

16. doubtlessly (other) doubtlessly; indeed; really; truly; undoubtedly

17. easily (other) easily; effortlessly; facilely; freely; lightly; readily; smoothly

18. excellently (other) commendably; excellently; meritoriously

19. favorably (other) comfortably; favorably; fortunately; happily; prosperously; satisfyingly; successfully; swimmingly

20. intimately (other) intimately; personally

21. probably (other) as likely as not (colloquial); in all likelihood; like as not (colloquial); likely; probably

22. proficiently (other) ably; adeptly; capably; deftly; dextrously; handily; proficiently; skilfully

23. quite (other) by a long chalk (British, colloquial); by a long shot; by a long way; by far; considerably; fairly; far; far and away; quite; rather; significantly; somewhat

Антонимический ряд:

absorb; bad; ineptly; poorly; scarcely; sick; sickly

English-Russian base dictionary > well
5 low

̈ɪləu I
1. сущ. мычание, рев( быка, коровы и т. п.) Syn: moo, mumbling
2. гл.
1) а) мычать, реветь( о домашнем скоте) Syn: moo, bellow
2. б) мычать, произносить нечленораздельные звуки (о человеке, тж. с forth) Syn: bellow
2.
2) перен. гудеть, выть, завывать;
отражать эхо( о пещере) Syn: bellow
2., howl
2. II
1. прил.
1) а) низкий, невысокий (физически;
небольшой по высоте;
отстоящий невысоко от земли и т. п.) a low bush (hill, man, fence, ceiling) ≈ низкий куст (холм, человек, забор, потолок) low forehead ≈ низкий лоб low stature ≈ невысокий рост the sun is low ≈ солнце стоит низко low bridge ≈ невысокий мост low obeisance ≈ низкий реверанс Syn: little
1., short
1. handle Ant: tall, high I
1. б) низкий, низменный low relief ≈ низменность
2) мелкий, неглубокий( о воде) low water, low tide ≈ отлив low ebb а) отлив;
б) перен. спад, упадок
3) (об одежде и т. п.) открытый;
низкий low oxfords ≈ невысокие полуботинки low neck ≈ глубокий вырез, декольте low (cut) dress ≈ платье с глубоким вырезом;
декольтированное платье
4) о звуке а) тихий, негромкий in a low voice ≈ тихим голосом, понизив голос б) низкий (о звуке) муз. на полтона ниже A low ≈ ля бемоль Syn: flat I
1. в) низко настроенный( об инструменте)
5) а) слабый, ослабленный (о здоровье, силах и т. п.) to be very low with pneumonia ≈ слечь с пневмонией Syn: weak, prostrate
1. б) упавший духом, безжизненный;
унылый;
подавленный to feel low ≈ быть в депрессии you bring me low ≈ у меня от вас падает настроение a low frame of mind ≈ пессимистический склад характера Syn: depressed
6) а) низкий, ниже желаемого или должного уровня low birth ≈ низкая рождаемость low pressure ≈ низкое давление low visibility ≈ плохая видимость a low level of employment ≈ низкий уровень занятости low prices ≈ низкие цены low wages ≈ низкая заработная плата Syn: substandard, inadequate б) скудный, недостаточный;
истощенный, исчерпанный low supply ≈ недостаточное обеспечение;
недостача, дефицит to run low ≈ истощаться( о запасах) he is in low pocket ≈ разг. он на мели (т. е. у него нет денег) in low circumstances ≈ в стесненных обстоятельствах Syn: short
1., depleted
7) низкий;
низший( по некоторой шкале, в некоторой иерархии и т. п.) low gear ≈ авт. первая передача, первая скорость the thermometer/glass is low ≈ ртутный столбик в термометре/барометре упал low polymer ≈ хим. низший полимер low frequency ≈ радио низкая частота low head ≈ малый напор воды low to paper ≈ мелкий шрифт low vowel ≈ фон. гласный нижнего подъема men low in the social scale ≈ люди, занимающие низшие ступени в общественной иерархии
8) а) заурядный, рядовой;
низкий по развитию low type of intelligence ≈ недостаточно образованный Syn: commonplace
2., mean I б) низкий, вульгарный;
непристойный (о языке, литературном стиле, авторе) Syn: coarse, vulgar
1. в) невоспитанный, грубый, вульгарный a low mannered man ≈ очень невоспитанный человек Syn: coarse, vulgar
1.
9) а) низкого происхождения, сословия of low birth/origin ≈ низкого происхождения Syn: ignoble б) низший, невысокоразвитой;
находящийся на ранних стадиях эволюции (об организмах, обществе и т. д.) low organisms ≈ низшие организмы low races ≈ низшие расы
10) подлый, низкий, низменный ( о поступке, человеке и т. д.) a low trick ≈ подлость, подлый поступок Syn: abject, base II
1., mean I
11) плохой, нелестный;
неприятный( о мнении, отзыве и т. п.) to have a low opinion of smb. ≈ сформировать плохое мнение о ком-л. Syn: unfavorable, disparaging ∙ Low Sunday церк. ≈ Фомино воскресенье (первое после пасхи) to be low in the lay, in low water ≈ ид. сидеть на мели, без копья в кармане lay low
2. нареч.
1) тж. перен. низко;
глубоко at low board ≈ в дальнем конце стола to dance low ≈ танцевать, приподнимая ноги только чуть-чуть to sink low ≈ глубоко погрузиться, утонуть to fall low ≈ перен. низко пасть
2) скромно, по-скромному;
делая что-л. по минимуму;
недостаточно питаясь we lived very low ≈ жили мы в жуткой бедности to burn low ≈ слабо гореть breed (a person) low ≈ плохо воспитать, недоучить ( кого-л.) play low ≈ играть по-мелкому;
не делать крупных ставок Syn: humbly
3) а) негромко, тихо to speak low ≈ говорить тихо Syn: gently, softly б) низко, на низкой ноте to get low ≈ взять низко во время пения
4) о времени недавно;
поздно as low as the time of Pope Alexander the third ≈ до времени самого Папы Римского Александра Третьего
3. сущ.
1) тж. мн. а) низина, ложбина между дюнами б) вода, остающаяся в таких ложбинах после отлива Syn: hollow
1., valley
2) метеор. область низкого барометрического давления
3) минимум, самый низкий уровень чего-л., обычно измеряющегося числами а) ценовой минимум б) статистический минимум (смертности, прироста населения и т. п.) в) низшая температурная отметка (для какой-л. конкретной области) г) спорт самый низкий счет
4) карт. козырная двойка, самый младший козырь
5) первая передача, первая скорость( автомобиля) самый низкий уровень - to reach a new * снова /еще больше/ упасть (о ценах и т. п.) - the pound reached an all-time * курс фунта упал до небывало низкого уровня обыкн. pl низина (метеорология) область низкого барометрического давления;
циклон( карточное) младший козырь фоска (игральная карта от двойки до десятки) (спортивное) самый маленький счет( автомобильное) первая, низшая скорость низкий, невысокий - * wall низкая стена - * range of hills невысокий ряд холмов - * forehead низкий лоб - * latitudes (география) низкие широты - * pressure низкое давление - * frequency (радиотехника) (телевидение) низкая частота - * polymer (химическое) низший полимер - * trajectory( военное) настильная /отлогая/ траектория( полета снаряда) - * head малый напор воды - * cover подрост, нижний ярус (в лесу) - * gear (автомобильное) низшая /первая/ передача - of (a) * stature невысокого роста - the moon was * in the sky луна стояла низко над горизонтом - the glass is * ртуть в барометре опустилась (низко) низкий, низменный - trees growing in *, shady places деревья, растущие в низких тенистых местах низкий, ниже обычного или желаемого уровня - * price низкая цена - * attendance плохая посещаемость - * level of employment низкий уровень занятости, большая безработица - * visibility плохая /слабая, ограниченная, пониженная/ видимость - * tide отлив, малая вода - to get * понижаться, падать - the well is * вода в колодце /в водоеме/ стоит на низком уровне - the river is * река обмелела - we are getting * on sugar у нас остается маловато сахару открытый (об одежде) - * slippers открытые туфли - * dress открытое /декольтированное/ платье - * neck глубокий вырез, декольте тихий, негромкий - * whisper тихий шепот - to speak in a * voice говорить тихим голосом /понизив голос/ низкий (о звуке) низкого происхождения, низкого социального положения - all sorts of people. high and * всякие люди, люди разных классов - a man of * birth /origin/ человек низкого происхождения - to have a * station in life занимать очень скромное положение невысокоразвитый, стоящий на низкой ступени цивилизации - * tribes племена, стоящие на низкой ступени развития (биология) низший - * forms of life низшие формы жизни /живых существ/ - * organisms низшие организмы вульгарный, грубый;
низкий;
невоспитанный - * manners плохие манеры;
вульгарные манеры - * langauge сквернословие - * fellow невоспитанный /грубый/ человек, хам - * conduct низкое поведение, хамство - * tastes грубые вкусы низкий, подлый " * trick подлая выходка - * cunning коварство;
изворотливость - * stunt to pull грязная проделка - * company подозрительная компания;
шпана слабый, пониженный;
небольшой - * pulse слабый пульс - * state of health слабое здоровье - * fever небольшой /несильный/ жар - in a * condition в плохом /жалком/ состоянии слабый, подавленный - to be feeling * чувствовать себя неважно - to be in * spirits быть в подавленном состоянии подавленный, униженный - to bring * подавлять, угнетать;
унижать - to be brought * быть униженным, подвергнуться унижениям плохой, неблагоприятный - * opinion of smb. плохое мнение о ком-л. - * estimate of smth. плохая оценка чего-л.;
неблагоприятный отзыв о чем-л. скудный, недостаточный;
непитательный;
истощенный, исчерпанный - * diet скудное питание;
низкокалорийная диета - in * supply дефицитный - to run * истощаться (о запасах и т. п.) - to be * in pocket остаться без денег - to be in * supply быть дефицитным - oil is in * supply нефти не хватает;
нефть поступает в недостаточном количестве - our stock of coal is very * у нас осталось очень мало угля сравнительно недавний, стоящий ближе к современности (о дате) - * Latin поздняя /народная, средневековая/ латынь (часто L.) (церковное) принадлежащие к низкой церкви > to be * in the lay, to be in * water сидеть без денег /на мели/, страдать от безденежья низко - * at board на (нижнм) конце стола - to bow * низко кланяться;
отвесить низкий поклон - to aim * целить низко - to hang * висеть низко - to sink * in the water глубоко погрузиться в воду - stocks are running * запасы кончаются - I hope I shall never fall as * as that я надеюсь, что никогда не паду так низко - he sank * in my esteem он низко пал в моих глазах - you value yourself too * вы недостаточно /слишком мало/ себя цените тихо, негромко - to speak * говорить тихо на низких нотах - he cannot get so * он не может взять такую низкую ноту дешево, по дешевой цене - to buy * покупать дешево, купить по дешевке - to play * играть по маленькой (в карты, кости и т. п.) скудно;
бедно, в бедности - to live * жить в бедности, скудно питаться слабо - to burn * слабо гореть поздно, недавно - you can find it as * as the 18th century это можно обнаружить еще и в XVIII веке > to lie * припасть к земле, лежать распростертым;
лежать во прахе, быть мертвым;
быть униженным;
притаиться, молчать, выжидать > to lay * опрокинуть;
свалить, повалить;
унизить;
похоронить мычание мычать all-time ~ небывало низкий уровень all-time ~ рекордно низкий уровень ~ небольшой, недостаточный;
low wages низкая заработная плата;
to be in low circumstances быть в стесненных обстоятельствах ~ низко;
to bow low низко кланяться to bring ~ подавлять;
унижать ~ слабо, тихо, чуть;
to speak low говорить тихо;
to burn low гореть слабо ~ по низкой цене, дешево;
to buy low купить дешево;
to play low играть по низкой ставке ~ плохой, скверный;
to form a low opinion (of smb.) составить себе плохое мнение (о ком-л.), быть невысокого мнения( о ком-л.) ~ скудный, непитательный (о диете) ;
истощенный, опустошенный( о запасах, кошельке) ;
low supply недостаточное снабжение;
in low supply дефицитный to lay ~ повалить, опрокинуть to lay ~ похоронить to lay ~ унизить to lie ~ быть униженным to lie ~ лежать мертвым to lie ~ разг. притаиться, выжидать low в бедности;
to live low жить бедно low в бедности;
to live low жить бедно ~ вульгарный, грубый;
низкий, подлый;
непристойный;
low comedy комедия, граничащая с фарсом ~ метео область низкого барометрического давления ~ минимум ~ карт. младший козырь ~ мычание ~ мычать ~ неблагоприятный ~ небольшой, недостаточный;
low wages низкая заработная плата;
to be in low circumstances быть в стесненных обстоятельствах ~ недостаточный ~ низкий, невысокий;
low tide (или water) малая вода;
отлив ~ низкий ~ (самый) низкий уровень ~ низко;
to bow low низко кланяться ~ низкого происхождения ~ биол. низший;
невысокоразвитой ~ первая, низшая передача (автомобиля) ~ плохой, скверный;
to form a low opinion (of smb.) составить себе плохое мнение (о ком-л.), быть невысокого мнения (о ком-л.) ~ по низкой цене, дешево;
to buy low купить дешево;
to play low играть по низкой ставке ~ с глубоким вырезом, с большим декольте (о платье) ~ спорт. самый низкий счет ~ самый низкий уровень ~ скудный, непитательный (о диете) ;
истощенный, опустошенный (о запасах, кошельке) ;
low supply недостаточное снабжение;
in low supply дефицитный ~ слабо, тихо, чуть;
to speak low говорить тихо;
to burn low гореть слабо ~ слабый;
подавленный;
пониженный;
low pulse слабый пульс;
low visibility плохая видимость ~ тихий, негромкий (о голосе) ;
низкий (о ноте) ;
low whisper тихий шепот ~ униженно lower: ~ сравн. ст. от low низший;
нижний;
lower deck нижняя палуба ~ вульгарный, грубый;
низкий, подлый;
непристойный;
low comedy комедия, граничащая с фарсом ~ слабый;
подавленный;
пониженный;
low pulse слабый пульс;
low visibility плохая видимость ~ spirits подавленность, уныние;
to feel low чувствовать себя подавленным Low Sunday церк. Фомино воскресенье (первое после пасхи) ~ скудный, непитательный (о диете) ;
истощенный, опустошенный (о запасах, кошельке) ;
low supply недостаточное снабжение;
in low supply дефицитный ~ низкий, невысокий;
low tide (или water) малая вода;
отлив ~ слабый;
подавленный;
пониженный;
low pulse слабый пульс;
low visibility плохая видимость ~ небольшой, недостаточный;
low wages низкая заработная плата;
to be in low circumstances быть в стесненных обстоятельствах ~ тихий, негромкий (о голосе) ;
низкий (о ноте) ;
low whisper тихий шепот ~ по низкой цене, дешево;
to buy low купить дешево;
to play low играть по низкой ставке price too ~ назначать слишком низкую цену ~ слабо, тихо, чуть;
to speak low говорить тихо;
to burn low гореть слабо

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > low
6 well

1. камера давления

gusher well — скважина высокого давления

pressure at the well bore — забойное давление

high pressure well — скважина высокого давления

low pressure well — скважина с низким давлением

2. ячейка формы глубокой печати

image well — ячейка формы глубокой печати

deep well — глубокая скважина

deep well socket — глубокая розетка

English-Russian big polytechnic dictionary > well
7 well

1. скважина

2. колодец

3. источник

4. отстойник, зумпф

dual completion gas well — газовая скважина, законченная в двух горизонтах

dual completion oil well — нефтяная скважина, законченная в двух горизонтах

multiple string small diameter well — скважина, пробуренная для одновременной и раздельной эксплуатации нескольких продуктивных горизонтов, в которую спущено две и более эксплуатационных колонн малого диаметра

salt water disposal well — скважина для сброса солёной воды

well out of control — скважина, фонтанирование которой не удаётся закрыть; открыто фонтанирующая скважина

well producing from … — эксплуатационная скважина, проведенная на (такой-то) пласт

— abandoned condensate well

— abandoned gas well

— abandoned oil well

— abandoned well

— absorption well

— adjoining well

— barren well

— beam well

— belching well

— blow well

— blowing well

— borderline well

— bore well

— breakthrough well

— brought in well

— cable tool well

— cased through well

— cased well

— cemented up well

— center well

— close-spaced wells

— commercial well

— completed well

— condensate well

— confirmation well

— controlled directional well

— converted gas-input well

— cored well

— corrosive well

— curved well

— dead well

— deep well

— development well

— directional well

— discovery well

— disposal well

— diving well

— drilled gas-input well

— drilled water-input well

— drilling well

— drowned well

— dry well

— dual pumping well

— dually completed well

— edge well

— exhausted well

— exploratory well

— extension well

— field well

— fill-in well

— flowing well

— gas well

— geothermal well

— gusher well

— high pressure well

— hypothetical well

— image well

— imperfect well

— inactive well

— individual well

— infill well

— injection well

— input well

— intake well

— junked well

— key well

— line wells

— low pressure well

— marginal well

— mudded up well

— mudded well

— natural well

— non-productive well

— observation well

— offset well

— offshore well

— off-structure well

— oil well

— on-structure well

— outpost well

— paying well

— pinch out well

— pioneer well

— pressure well

— producing well

— prolific well

— prospect well

— pumping well

— recipient wells

— recovery well

— relief well

— salt up well

— salt water well

— salt-dome well

— sanded up well

— sanded well

— sandy well

— satellite well

— seabed oil well

— service well

— shut-in well

— steam well

— stripper well

— superdeep well

— test well

— tubed well

— twin well

— ultradeep well

— unloading well

— untubed well

— upstream well

— waste disposal well

— water dependent well

— water supply well

— water well

— water-free well

— well in operation

— well off

— well under control

— wet well

— wide-spaced wells

— wild gas well

— wild well

* * *

скважина

to abandon a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to bean a well back — снижать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to bean a well up — повышать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to blow a well — открывать фонтанирующую скважину на короткое время (для удаления воды, песка);

to bring a well in — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to bump off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to case a well — обсаживать ствол скважины;

to complete a well — заканчивать скважину;

to dry up a well — откачивать жидкость из скважины;

to flow a well hard — эксплуатировать фонтанирующую скважину с максимально возможным дебитом;

to flush a well out — промывать скважину;

to hand off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to junk a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to kill a well — глушить скважину (уравновешивать пластовое давление);

to knife a well — чистить скважину (от парафина) скребками;

to line a well — обсаживать ствол скважины;

to mud a well up — подавать буровой раствор в скважину (после бурения с продувкой);

to place a well on choke — начинать дросселировать поток из скважины с помощью штуцера;

to plug up a well — устанавливать в скважину цементную пробку (с целью её ликвидации);

to pull a well — ликвидировать скважину с извлечением лифтовых труб и насосного оборудования;

to put a well on production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on the pump — 1. начинать насосную эксплуатацию скважины; 2. устанавливать насосный подъёмник в скважине

to rework a well — восстановить дебит скважины;

to rock a well — возбуждать приток в скважине попеременным открытием и закрытием устья;

to shoot a well — торпедировать скважину;

to shut down a well — консервировать скважину (в процессе строительства);

to shut in a well — закрывать скважину, останавливать скважину (устьевой задвижкой);

to strip a well — попеременно двигать колонны насосных штанг и лифтовых труб в скважине (для предотвращения скопления парафина);

to suspend a well — законсервировать строящуюся скважину;

to test a well — измерять дебит скважины;

to wake up a well — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to wash a well out — промывать скважину

well on the beam — скважина с насосным подъёмником

well on the pump — насосная скважина;

— abandoned well

— appraisal well

— barren well

— beam well

— beam-pumped well

— branched well

— cased well

— closed-in well

— cluster well

— commercial well

— completed well

— condensate well

— confirmation well

— controlled directional well

— cored well

— crooked well

— dead well

— development test well

— development well

— dewatering well

— directional well

— discovery well

— down-dip well

— drawn well

— dry well

— dual-completion well

— dual-zone well

— edge well

— exploratory well

— extension well

— flowing well

— gas lift well

— gas well

— head well

— high-flow-rate well

— horizontal well

— infill well

— injection well

— input well

— inspection well

— junked well

— key well

— killed well

— killer well

— line well

— marginal well

— multipay well

— multiple-completion well

— multiple-zone well

— noncommercial well

— nonproducing well

— observation well

— offset well

— offshore well

— oil well

— outpost extension well

— output well

— pipe well

— platform well

— pressure well

— pressure-relief well

— producing well

— production well

— prolific well

— pumped well

— pumping well

— relief well

— rod-line well

— sanded-up well

— sandy well

— satellite well

— shut-in well

— single well

— slanted well

— step-out well

— stratigraphic test well

— structure test well

— surging well

— suspended well

— temporarily abandoned well

— turnkey well

— underwater well

— wild well

— wildcat well

* * *

скважина; колодец

* * *

скважина

* * *

1) буровая скважина

2) резервуар; компенсационный колодец, отстойник, зумпф

•

well has stopped flowing naturally — скважина прекратила естественное фонтанирование;

well imperfect due of method of completion — скважина, несовершенная по способу заканчивания;

well in operation — действующая скважина;

well kicked off natural — скважина, начавшая фонтанировать без возбуждения, без тартания и без кислотной обработки;

well off — простаивающая скважина;

well on the beam — скважина с насосным подъёмником;

well on the pump — насосная скважина;

well out of control — открыто фонтанирующая скважина; скважина, фонтанирование которой не удается остановить ();

well out of operation — бездействующая скважина;

well put into production — скважина, введённая в эксплуатацию;

well set on packer — скважина, оборудования пакером;

to abandon a well — ликвидировать скважину ();

to bean a well back — снижать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to bean a well up — повышать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to blow a well — открывать фонтанирующую скважину на короткое время (<<для удаления воды>);

to blow a well clean — продувать скважину;

to bring a well in — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to bring in a well — ввести скважину в эксплуатацию;

to bump off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to cap a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to case a well — крепить скважину обсадными трубами, обсаживать ствол скважины;

to complete a well — 1) подготавливать скважину к эксплуатации 2) заканчивать скважину;

to drill a well — бурить скважину;

to drive a well — бурить скважину;

to dry up a well — откачивать жидкость из скважины;

to dual a well — 1) эксплуатировать одновременно два горизонта в скважине 2) использовать силовую установку одной скважины для эксплуатации другой;

to flow a well hard — эксплуатировать фонтанирующую скважину с максимально возможным дебитом;

to flush a well out — промывать скважину;

to get a well back on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию;

to go off a well — прекращать давать добычу ();

to hand a well off — прекращать насосную эксплуатацию скважины;

to hand off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to junk a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to kill a well — глушить скважину ( уравновешивать пластовое давление);

to knife a well — чистить скважину ( от парафина) скребками;

to line a well — крепить скважину обсадными трубами, обсаживать ствол скважины;

to mud a well up — подавать буровой раствор в скважину ( после бурения с продувкой);

to place a well on choke — начинать дросселировать поток из скважины с помощью штуцера;

to plug up a well — устанавливать в скважину цементную пробку ( с целью её ликвидации);

to prepare a well for production — подготавливать скважину к эксплуатации;

to pull a well — ликвидировать скважину с извлечением насосно-компрессорных труб и насосного оборудования;

to put a well — начинать откачивание ( скважины);

to put a well back on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well into production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on — открывать фонтанный штуцер ( для выпуска нефти);

to put a well on production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on stream — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on the pump — 1) начинать насосную эксплуатацию скважины 2) устанавливать насосный подъёмник в скважине;

to return a well on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию; повторно вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to rework a well — восстановить дебит скважины;

to rock a well — возбуждать приток в скважине попеременным открытием и закрытием устья;

to shoot a well — торпедировать скважину;

to shut down a well — консервировать скважину ();

to shut in a well — закрывать скважину; останавливать фонтанирование; останавливать скважину ( устьевой задвижкой);

to start a well — приступать к бурению скважины;

to strip a well — попеременно двигать колонны насосных штанг и насосно-компрессорных труб в скважине ( для предотвращения скопления парафина);

to suspend a well — консервировать строящуюся скважину;

to test a well — измерять дебит скважины;

to test a well for production — испытывать скважину на приток;

to wake up a well — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to wash a well into production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию понижением уровня воды;

to wash a well out — промывать скважину;

well under control — скважина с закрытым фонтанированием

- abandoned well
- abandoned condensate well
- abandoned gas well
- abandoned oil well
- abandoned oil-and-gas well
- abnormal-pressure well
- absorption well
- Abyssinian well
- adjacent well
- adjoining well
- appraisal well
- artesian well
- barefooted well
- barren well
- base well
- beam well
- beam-pumped well
- belching well
- benchmark well
- blow well
- blowing well
- blowout well
- blue sky exploratory well
- borderline well
- bore well
- Braden head gas well
- breakthrough well
- breathing well
- brought-in well
- cable-tool well
- cased well
- cased-through well
- cemented-up well
- center well
- closed-in well
- close-spaced wells
- cluster well
- commercial well
- completed well
- condensate well
- confirmation well
- connected well
- controlled directional well
- converted gas-input well
- cored well
- corner well
- corrosive well
- cratering well
- crooked well
- curved well
- dead well
- declined well
- deep well
- deflected well
- development well
- development gas well
- development test well
- deviated well
- deviating well
- dewatering well
- directional well
- directionally drilled well
- discovery well
- disposal well
- diving well
- down-dip well
- drain-hole well
- drawn well
- drawned-out well
- drill well
- drill ship well
- drill ship center well
- drilled well
- drilled gas-input well
- drilled water-input well
- drilling well
- driven well
- drowned well
- dry well
- dual well
- dual-completion well
- dual-completion gas well
- dual-completion oil well
- dually-completed well
- dual-pumping well
- dual-zone well
- edge well
- exception well
- exhausted well
- exploratory well
- extension well
- field well
- field development well
- fill-in well
- flank well
- flooded well
- flowing well
- flowing producing oil well
- fresh-water well
- fully penetrating well
- gas well
- gas-injection well
- gaslift well
- geophysical well
- geothermal well
- gurgling well
- gusher well
- hand dog well
- head well
- high-flow-rate well
- high-pressure well
- horizontal well
- hydrodynamically imperfect well
- hydrodynamically perfect well
- hypothetical well
- image well
- imperfect well
- inactive well
- inclined well
- individual well
- infill well
- injection well
- injured well
- input well
- inspection well
- intake well
- intracontour well
- isolated-branched well
- jack well
- junked well
- key well
- kicking well
- killed well
- killer well
- leaking well
- line well
- low pressure well
- marginal well
- medium-depth well
- monitor well
- most probably well
- mudded well
- mudded-up well
- multipay well
- multiple-completion well
- multiple-string small diameter well
- multiple-zone well
- multistring well
- natural well
- neighboring well
- noncommercial well
- nonproducing well
- nonproductive well
- observation well
- off-pattern injection well
- off-structure well
- offset well
- offshore well
- oil well
- old well drilled deeper
- old well plugged back
- old well worked-over
- old abandoned well
- on-structure well
- on-the-beam well
- on-the-pump well
- open hole well
- orifice well
- out-of-control well
- outpost extension well
- output well
- overhauled well
- partially penetrating well
- paying well
- perfect well
- perforated well
- perimeter well
- piestic well
- pinch-out well
- pioneer well
- pipe well
- planned well
- platform well
- plugged-and-abandoned well
- pressure well
- pressure-observation well
- pressure-relief well
- producing well
- producing oil well
- producing oil-and-gas well
- production well
- prolific well
- prospect well
- pumped well
- pumper well
- pumping well
- pumping producing oil well
- purposely deviated well
- purposely slanted well
- quadruple completion well
- recipient wells
- recovery well
- relief well
- returned well to production
- rod-line well
- running well
- salt-dome well
- salt-up well
- salt-water well
- salt-water disposal well
- salt-water injection well
- sand well
- sand-clogged well
- sanded well
- sanded-up well
- sanding-up well
- sand-plugged well
- sand-producing well
- sand-up well
- sandy well
- satellite well
- seabed well
- selective water-injection well
- service well
- shallow well
- shut-in well
- shut-in gas well
- shut-in oil well
- side well
- single well
- single-completion well
- single-jacker well
- single-string well
- slanted well
- slim hole well
- special well
- staggered wells
- steam well
- steam-injection well
- step-out well
- straight well
- stratigraphic well
- stratigraphic test well
- stripped well
- stripper well
- strong well
- structure test well
- subsalt well
- sunken well
- superdeep well
- supply well
- surging well
- suspended well
- temporarily abandoned well
- temporarily shut-in well
- test well
- triple-completion well
- tubed well
- turnkey well
- twin well
- two-casing well
- two-string well
- ultradeep well
- underwater well
- unloading well
- unprofitable well
- untubed well
- upstream well
- vertical well
- waste disposal well
- water well
- water-dependent well
- water-disposal well
- water-free well
- water-injection well
- water-producing well
- water-supply well
- wet well
- wide-spaced wells
- wild well
- wild gas well
- wildcat well
- worked-over well
- workover well
* * *

веллингтон

Англо-русский словарь нефтегазовой промышленности > well
8 low voltage controlgear and assembly
1. НКУ распределения и управления
низковольтное устройство распределения и управления (НКУ)
Низковольтные коммутационные аппараты и устройства управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования, собранные совместно, со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями и конструктивными элементами.
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 61439-1-2012]

низковольтное устройство распределения и управления
Комбинация низковольтных коммутационных аппаратов с устройствами управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования и т. п., полностью смонтированных изготовителем НКУ (под его ответственность на единой конструктивной основе) со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями с соответствующими конструктивными элементами
Примечания
1. В настоящем стандарте сокращение НКУ используют для обозначения низковольтных комплектных устройств распределения и управления.
2. Аппараты, входящие в состав НКУ, могут быть электромеханическими или электронными.
3. По различным причинам, например по условиям транспортирования или изготовления, некоторые операции сборки могут быть выполнены на месте установки, вне предприятия-изготовителя.
[ ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000 ( МЭК 60439-1-92)]

EN

power switchgear and controlgear assembly (PSC-assembly)
low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly used to distribute and control energy for all types of loads, intended for industrial, commercial and similar applications where operation by ordinary persons is not intended
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
combination of one or more low-voltage switching devices together with associated control, measuring, signalling, protective, regulation equipment, etc., completely assembled under the responsibility of the manufacturer with all the internal electrical and mechanical interconnections and structural parts.
[IEC 61892-3, ed. 2.0 (2007-11)]

switchgear and controlgear
a general term covering switching devices and their combination with associated control, measuring, protective and regulating equipment, also assemblies of such devices and equipment with associated interconnections, accessories, enclosures and supporting structures
[IEV number 441-11-01]

switchgear and controlgear
electric equipment intended to be connected to an electric circuit for the purpose of carrying out one or more of the following functions: protection, control, isolation, switching
NOTE – The French and English terms can be considered as equivalent in most cases. However, the French term has a broader meaning than the English term and includes for example connecting devices, plugs and socket-outlets, etc. In English, these latter devices are known as accessories.
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

switchboard
A large single electric control panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted (either on the back or on the face, or both) switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and usually instruments; not intended for installation in a cabinet but may be completely enclosed in metal; usually is accessible from both the front and rear.
[ McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture & Construction]

switchboard
One or more panels accommodating control switches, indicators, and other apparatus for operating electric circuits
[ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]

FR

ensemble d'appareillage de puissance (ensemble PSC)
ensemble d'appareillage à basse tension utilisé pour répartir et commander l'énergie pour tous les types de charges et prévu pour des applications industrielles, commerciales et analogues dans lesquelles l'exploitation par des personnes ordinaires n'est pas prévue
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

appareillage, m
matériel électrique destiné à être relié à un circuit électrique en vue d'assurer une ou plusieurs des fonctions suivantes: protection, commande, sectionnement, connexion
NOTE – Les termes français et anglais peuvent être considérés comme équivalents dans la plupart des cas. Toutefois, le terme français couvre un domaine plus étendu que le terme anglais, et comprend notamment les dispositifs de connexion, les prises de courant, etc. En anglais, ces derniers sont dénommés "accessories".
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

appareillage
terme général applicable aux appareils de connexion et à leur combinaison avec des appareils de commande, de mesure, de protection et de réglage qui leur sont associés, ainsi qu'aux ensembles de tels appareils avec les connexions, les accessoires, les enveloppes et les charpentes correspondantes
[IEV number 441-11-01]

A switchboard as defined in the National Electrical Code is a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted, on the face or back or both switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and, usually, instruments.
Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and are not intended to be installed in cabinets.
The types of switchboards, classified by basic features of construction, are as follows:
1. Live-front vertical panels
2. Dead-front boards
3. Safety enclosed boards( metal-clad)

[American electricians’ handbook]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

The switchboard plays an essential role in the availability of electric power, while meeting the needs of personal and property safety.

Its definition, design and installation are based on precise rules; there is no place for improvisation.

The IEC 61439 standard aims to better define " low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies", ensuring that the specified performances are reached.

It specifies in particular:

> the responsibilities of each player, distinguishing those of the original equipment manufacturer - the organization that performed the original design and associated verification of an assembly in accordance with the standard, and of the assembly manufacturer - the organization taking responsibility for the finished assembly;

> the design and verification rules, constituting a benchmark for product certification.

All the component parts of the electrical switchboard are concerned by the IEC 61439 standard.

Equipment produced in accordance with the requirements of this switchboard standard ensures the safety and reliability of the installation.

A switchboard must comply with the requirements of standard IEC 61439-1 and 2 to guarantee the safety and reliability of the installation.

Managers of installations, fully aware of the professional and legal liabilities weighing on their company and on themselves, demand a high level of safety for the electrical installation.

What is more, the serious economic consequences of prolonged halts in production mean that the electrical switchboard must provide excellent continuity of service, whatever the operating conditions.

[Schneider Electric]

НКУ играет главную роль в обеспечении электроэнергией, удовлетворяя при этом всем требованиям по безопасности людей и сохранности имущества.

Выбор конструкции, проектирование и монтаж основаны на чётких правилах, не допускающих никакой импровизации.

Требования к низковольтным комплектным устройствам распределения и управления сформулированы в стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000).

В частности, он определяет:

> распределение ответственности между изготовителем НКУ - организацией, разработавшей конструкцию НКУ и проверившей его на соответствие требованиям стандарта, и сборщиком – организацией, выполнившей сборку НКУ;

> конструкцию, технические характеристики, виды и методы испытаний НКУ.

В стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000) описываются все компоненты НКУ.

Оборудование, изготовленное в соответствии с требованиями этого стандарта, обеспечивает безопасность и надежность электроустановки.

Для того чтобы гарантировать безопасность эксплуатации и надежность работы электроустановки, распределительный щит должен соответствовать требованиям стандарта МЭК 61439-1 и 2.

Лица, ответственные за электроустановки, должны быть полностью осведомлены о профессиональной и юридической ответственности, возложенной на их компанию и на них лично, за обеспечение высокого уровня безопасности эксплуатации этих электроустановок.

Кроме того, поскольку длительные перерывы производства приводят к серьезным экономическим последствиям, электрический распределительный щит должен обеспечивать надежную и бесперебойную работу независимо от условий эксплуатации.

[Перевод Интент]

LV switchgear assemblies are undoubtedly the components of the electric installation more subject to the direct intervention of personnel (operations, maintenance, etc.) and for this reason users demand from them higher and higher safety requirements.

The compliance of an assembly with the state of the art and therefore, presumptively, with the relevant technical Standard, cannot be based only on the fact that the components which constitute it comply with the state of the art and therefore, at least presumptively, with the relevant technical standards.

In other words, the whole assembly must be designed, built and tested in compliance with the state of the art.

Since the assemblies under consideration are low voltage equipment, their rated voltage shall not exceed 1000 Va.c. or 1500 Vd.c. As regards currents, neither upper nor lower limits are provided in the application field of this Standard.

The Standard IEC 60439-1 states the construction, safety and maintenance requirements for low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies, without dealing with the functional aspects which remain a competence of the designer of the plant for which the assembly is intended.

[ABB]

Низковольтные комплектные устройства (НКУ), вне всякого сомнения, являются частями электроустановок, которые наиболее подвержены непосредственному вмешательству оперативного, обслуживающего и т. п. персонала. Вот почему требования потребителей к безопасности НКУ становятся все выше и выше.

Соответствие НКУ современному положению дел и вследствие этого, гипотетически, соответствующим техническим стандартам, не может основываться только на том факте, что составляющие НКУ компоненты соответствуют современному состоянию дел и поэтому, по крайней мере, гипотетически, - соответствующим техническим стандартам

Другими словами, НКУ должно быть разработано, изготовлено и испытано в соответствии с современными требованиями.

Мы рассматриваем низковольтные комплектные устройства и это означает, что их номинальное напряжение не превышает 1000 В переменного тока или 1500 В постоянного тока. Что касается тока, то ни верхнее, ни нижнее значение стандартами, относящимися к данной области, не оговариваются

Стандарт МЭК 60439-1 устанавливает требования к конструкции, безопасности и техническому обслуживанию низковольтных комплектных устройств без учета их функций, полагая, что функции НКУ являются компетенцией проектировщиков электроустановки, частью которых эти НКУ являются.

[Перевод Интент]

Тематики
- НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)
Классификация
>>>
Действия
Синонимы
Сопутствующие термины
- изготовитель НКУ
EN
DE
- Schaltanlagen und/oder Schaltgeräte
FR
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > low voltage controlgear and assembly
9 low voltage switchboard
1. НКУ распределения и управления
низковольтное устройство распределения и управления (НКУ)
Низковольтные коммутационные аппараты и устройства управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования, собранные совместно, со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями и конструктивными элементами.
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 61439-1-2012]

низковольтное устройство распределения и управления
Комбинация низковольтных коммутационных аппаратов с устройствами управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования и т. п., полностью смонтированных изготовителем НКУ (под его ответственность на единой конструктивной основе) со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями с соответствующими конструктивными элементами
Примечания
1. В настоящем стандарте сокращение НКУ используют для обозначения низковольтных комплектных устройств распределения и управления.
2. Аппараты, входящие в состав НКУ, могут быть электромеханическими или электронными.
3. По различным причинам, например по условиям транспортирования или изготовления, некоторые операции сборки могут быть выполнены на месте установки, вне предприятия-изготовителя.
[ ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000 ( МЭК 60439-1-92)]

EN

power switchgear and controlgear assembly (PSC-assembly)
low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly used to distribute and control energy for all types of loads, intended for industrial, commercial and similar applications where operation by ordinary persons is not intended
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
combination of one or more low-voltage switching devices together with associated control, measuring, signalling, protective, regulation equipment, etc., completely assembled under the responsibility of the manufacturer with all the internal electrical and mechanical interconnections and structural parts.
[IEC 61892-3, ed. 2.0 (2007-11)]

switchgear and controlgear
a general term covering switching devices and their combination with associated control, measuring, protective and regulating equipment, also assemblies of such devices and equipment with associated interconnections, accessories, enclosures and supporting structures
[IEV number 441-11-01]

switchgear and controlgear
electric equipment intended to be connected to an electric circuit for the purpose of carrying out one or more of the following functions: protection, control, isolation, switching
NOTE – The French and English terms can be considered as equivalent in most cases. However, the French term has a broader meaning than the English term and includes for example connecting devices, plugs and socket-outlets, etc. In English, these latter devices are known as accessories.
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

switchboard
A large single electric control panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted (either on the back or on the face, or both) switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and usually instruments; not intended for installation in a cabinet but may be completely enclosed in metal; usually is accessible from both the front and rear.
[ McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture & Construction]

switchboard
One or more panels accommodating control switches, indicators, and other apparatus for operating electric circuits
[ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]

FR

ensemble d'appareillage de puissance (ensemble PSC)
ensemble d'appareillage à basse tension utilisé pour répartir et commander l'énergie pour tous les types de charges et prévu pour des applications industrielles, commerciales et analogues dans lesquelles l'exploitation par des personnes ordinaires n'est pas prévue
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

appareillage, m
matériel électrique destiné à être relié à un circuit électrique en vue d'assurer une ou plusieurs des fonctions suivantes: protection, commande, sectionnement, connexion
NOTE – Les termes français et anglais peuvent être considérés comme équivalents dans la plupart des cas. Toutefois, le terme français couvre un domaine plus étendu que le terme anglais, et comprend notamment les dispositifs de connexion, les prises de courant, etc. En anglais, ces derniers sont dénommés "accessories".
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

appareillage
terme général applicable aux appareils de connexion et à leur combinaison avec des appareils de commande, de mesure, de protection et de réglage qui leur sont associés, ainsi qu'aux ensembles de tels appareils avec les connexions, les accessoires, les enveloppes et les charpentes correspondantes
[IEV number 441-11-01]

A switchboard as defined in the National Electrical Code is a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted, on the face or back or both switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and, usually, instruments.
Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and are not intended to be installed in cabinets.
The types of switchboards, classified by basic features of construction, are as follows:
1. Live-front vertical panels
2. Dead-front boards
3. Safety enclosed boards( metal-clad)

[American electricians’ handbook]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

The switchboard plays an essential role in the availability of electric power, while meeting the needs of personal and property safety.

Its definition, design and installation are based on precise rules; there is no place for improvisation.

The IEC 61439 standard aims to better define " low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies", ensuring that the specified performances are reached.

It specifies in particular:

> the responsibilities of each player, distinguishing those of the original equipment manufacturer - the organization that performed the original design and associated verification of an assembly in accordance with the standard, and of the assembly manufacturer - the organization taking responsibility for the finished assembly;

> the design and verification rules, constituting a benchmark for product certification.

All the component parts of the electrical switchboard are concerned by the IEC 61439 standard.

Equipment produced in accordance with the requirements of this switchboard standard ensures the safety and reliability of the installation.

A switchboard must comply with the requirements of standard IEC 61439-1 and 2 to guarantee the safety and reliability of the installation.

Managers of installations, fully aware of the professional and legal liabilities weighing on their company and on themselves, demand a high level of safety for the electrical installation.

What is more, the serious economic consequences of prolonged halts in production mean that the electrical switchboard must provide excellent continuity of service, whatever the operating conditions.

[Schneider Electric]

НКУ играет главную роль в обеспечении электроэнергией, удовлетворяя при этом всем требованиям по безопасности людей и сохранности имущества.

Выбор конструкции, проектирование и монтаж основаны на чётких правилах, не допускающих никакой импровизации.

Требования к низковольтным комплектным устройствам распределения и управления сформулированы в стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000).

В частности, он определяет:

> распределение ответственности между изготовителем НКУ - организацией, разработавшей конструкцию НКУ и проверившей его на соответствие требованиям стандарта, и сборщиком – организацией, выполнившей сборку НКУ;

> конструкцию, технические характеристики, виды и методы испытаний НКУ.

В стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000) описываются все компоненты НКУ.

Оборудование, изготовленное в соответствии с требованиями этого стандарта, обеспечивает безопасность и надежность электроустановки.

Для того чтобы гарантировать безопасность эксплуатации и надежность работы электроустановки, распределительный щит должен соответствовать требованиям стандарта МЭК 61439-1 и 2.

Лица, ответственные за электроустановки, должны быть полностью осведомлены о профессиональной и юридической ответственности, возложенной на их компанию и на них лично, за обеспечение высокого уровня безопасности эксплуатации этих электроустановок.

Кроме того, поскольку длительные перерывы производства приводят к серьезным экономическим последствиям, электрический распределительный щит должен обеспечивать надежную и бесперебойную работу независимо от условий эксплуатации.

[Перевод Интент]

LV switchgear assemblies are undoubtedly the components of the electric installation more subject to the direct intervention of personnel (operations, maintenance, etc.) and for this reason users demand from them higher and higher safety requirements.

The compliance of an assembly with the state of the art and therefore, presumptively, with the relevant technical Standard, cannot be based only on the fact that the components which constitute it comply with the state of the art and therefore, at least presumptively, with the relevant technical standards.

In other words, the whole assembly must be designed, built and tested in compliance with the state of the art.

Since the assemblies under consideration are low voltage equipment, their rated voltage shall not exceed 1000 Va.c. or 1500 Vd.c. As regards currents, neither upper nor lower limits are provided in the application field of this Standard.

The Standard IEC 60439-1 states the construction, safety and maintenance requirements for low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies, without dealing with the functional aspects which remain a competence of the designer of the plant for which the assembly is intended.

[ABB]

Низковольтные комплектные устройства (НКУ), вне всякого сомнения, являются частями электроустановок, которые наиболее подвержены непосредственному вмешательству оперативного, обслуживающего и т. п. персонала. Вот почему требования потребителей к безопасности НКУ становятся все выше и выше.

Соответствие НКУ современному положению дел и вследствие этого, гипотетически, соответствующим техническим стандартам, не может основываться только на том факте, что составляющие НКУ компоненты соответствуют современному состоянию дел и поэтому, по крайней мере, гипотетически, - соответствующим техническим стандартам

Другими словами, НКУ должно быть разработано, изготовлено и испытано в соответствии с современными требованиями.

Мы рассматриваем низковольтные комплектные устройства и это означает, что их номинальное напряжение не превышает 1000 В переменного тока или 1500 В постоянного тока. Что касается тока, то ни верхнее, ни нижнее значение стандартами, относящимися к данной области, не оговариваются

Стандарт МЭК 60439-1 устанавливает требования к конструкции, безопасности и техническому обслуживанию низковольтных комплектных устройств без учета их функций, полагая, что функции НКУ являются компетенцией проектировщиков электроустановки, частью которых эти НКУ являются.

[Перевод Интент]

Тематики
- НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)
Классификация
>>>
Действия
Синонимы
Сопутствующие термины
- изготовитель НКУ
EN
DE
- Schaltanlagen und/oder Schaltgeräte
FR
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > low voltage switchboard
10 low voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
1. НКУ распределения и управления
низковольтное устройство распределения и управления (НКУ)
Низковольтные коммутационные аппараты и устройства управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования, собранные совместно, со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями и конструктивными элементами.
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 61439-1-2012]

низковольтное устройство распределения и управления
Комбинация низковольтных коммутационных аппаратов с устройствами управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования и т. п., полностью смонтированных изготовителем НКУ (под его ответственность на единой конструктивной основе) со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями с соответствующими конструктивными элементами
Примечания
1. В настоящем стандарте сокращение НКУ используют для обозначения низковольтных комплектных устройств распределения и управления.
2. Аппараты, входящие в состав НКУ, могут быть электромеханическими или электронными.
3. По различным причинам, например по условиям транспортирования или изготовления, некоторые операции сборки могут быть выполнены на месте установки, вне предприятия-изготовителя.
[ ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000 ( МЭК 60439-1-92)]

EN

power switchgear and controlgear assembly (PSC-assembly)
low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly used to distribute and control energy for all types of loads, intended for industrial, commercial and similar applications where operation by ordinary persons is not intended
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
combination of one or more low-voltage switching devices together with associated control, measuring, signalling, protective, regulation equipment, etc., completely assembled under the responsibility of the manufacturer with all the internal electrical and mechanical interconnections and structural parts.
[IEC 61892-3, ed. 2.0 (2007-11)]

switchgear and controlgear
a general term covering switching devices and their combination with associated control, measuring, protective and regulating equipment, also assemblies of such devices and equipment with associated interconnections, accessories, enclosures and supporting structures
[IEV number 441-11-01]

switchgear and controlgear
electric equipment intended to be connected to an electric circuit for the purpose of carrying out one or more of the following functions: protection, control, isolation, switching
NOTE – The French and English terms can be considered as equivalent in most cases. However, the French term has a broader meaning than the English term and includes for example connecting devices, plugs and socket-outlets, etc. In English, these latter devices are known as accessories.
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

switchboard
A large single electric control panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted (either on the back or on the face, or both) switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and usually instruments; not intended for installation in a cabinet but may be completely enclosed in metal; usually is accessible from both the front and rear.
[ McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture & Construction]

switchboard
One or more panels accommodating control switches, indicators, and other apparatus for operating electric circuits
[ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]

FR

ensemble d'appareillage de puissance (ensemble PSC)
ensemble d'appareillage à basse tension utilisé pour répartir et commander l'énergie pour tous les types de charges et prévu pour des applications industrielles, commerciales et analogues dans lesquelles l'exploitation par des personnes ordinaires n'est pas prévue
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

appareillage, m
matériel électrique destiné à être relié à un circuit électrique en vue d'assurer une ou plusieurs des fonctions suivantes: protection, commande, sectionnement, connexion
NOTE – Les termes français et anglais peuvent être considérés comme équivalents dans la plupart des cas. Toutefois, le terme français couvre un domaine plus étendu que le terme anglais, et comprend notamment les dispositifs de connexion, les prises de courant, etc. En anglais, ces derniers sont dénommés "accessories".
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

appareillage
terme général applicable aux appareils de connexion et à leur combinaison avec des appareils de commande, de mesure, de protection et de réglage qui leur sont associés, ainsi qu'aux ensembles de tels appareils avec les connexions, les accessoires, les enveloppes et les charpentes correspondantes
[IEV number 441-11-01]

A switchboard as defined in the National Electrical Code is a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted, on the face or back or both switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and, usually, instruments.
Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and are not intended to be installed in cabinets.
The types of switchboards, classified by basic features of construction, are as follows:
1. Live-front vertical panels
2. Dead-front boards
3. Safety enclosed boards( metal-clad)

[American electricians’ handbook]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

The switchboard plays an essential role in the availability of electric power, while meeting the needs of personal and property safety.

Its definition, design and installation are based on precise rules; there is no place for improvisation.

The IEC 61439 standard aims to better define " low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies", ensuring that the specified performances are reached.

It specifies in particular:

> the responsibilities of each player, distinguishing those of the original equipment manufacturer - the organization that performed the original design and associated verification of an assembly in accordance with the standard, and of the assembly manufacturer - the organization taking responsibility for the finished assembly;

> the design and verification rules, constituting a benchmark for product certification.

All the component parts of the electrical switchboard are concerned by the IEC 61439 standard.

Equipment produced in accordance with the requirements of this switchboard standard ensures the safety and reliability of the installation.

A switchboard must comply with the requirements of standard IEC 61439-1 and 2 to guarantee the safety and reliability of the installation.

Managers of installations, fully aware of the professional and legal liabilities weighing on their company and on themselves, demand a high level of safety for the electrical installation.

What is more, the serious economic consequences of prolonged halts in production mean that the electrical switchboard must provide excellent continuity of service, whatever the operating conditions.

[Schneider Electric]

НКУ играет главную роль в обеспечении электроэнергией, удовлетворяя при этом всем требованиям по безопасности людей и сохранности имущества.

Выбор конструкции, проектирование и монтаж основаны на чётких правилах, не допускающих никакой импровизации.

Требования к низковольтным комплектным устройствам распределения и управления сформулированы в стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000).

В частности, он определяет:

> распределение ответственности между изготовителем НКУ - организацией, разработавшей конструкцию НКУ и проверившей его на соответствие требованиям стандарта, и сборщиком – организацией, выполнившей сборку НКУ;

> конструкцию, технические характеристики, виды и методы испытаний НКУ.

В стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000) описываются все компоненты НКУ.

Оборудование, изготовленное в соответствии с требованиями этого стандарта, обеспечивает безопасность и надежность электроустановки.

Для того чтобы гарантировать безопасность эксплуатации и надежность работы электроустановки, распределительный щит должен соответствовать требованиям стандарта МЭК 61439-1 и 2.

Лица, ответственные за электроустановки, должны быть полностью осведомлены о профессиональной и юридической ответственности, возложенной на их компанию и на них лично, за обеспечение высокого уровня безопасности эксплуатации этих электроустановок.

Кроме того, поскольку длительные перерывы производства приводят к серьезным экономическим последствиям, электрический распределительный щит должен обеспечивать надежную и бесперебойную работу независимо от условий эксплуатации.

[Перевод Интент]

LV switchgear assemblies are undoubtedly the components of the electric installation more subject to the direct intervention of personnel (operations, maintenance, etc.) and for this reason users demand from them higher and higher safety requirements.

The compliance of an assembly with the state of the art and therefore, presumptively, with the relevant technical Standard, cannot be based only on the fact that the components which constitute it comply with the state of the art and therefore, at least presumptively, with the relevant technical standards.

In other words, the whole assembly must be designed, built and tested in compliance with the state of the art.

Since the assemblies under consideration are low voltage equipment, their rated voltage shall not exceed 1000 Va.c. or 1500 Vd.c. As regards currents, neither upper nor lower limits are provided in the application field of this Standard.

The Standard IEC 60439-1 states the construction, safety and maintenance requirements for low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies, without dealing with the functional aspects which remain a competence of the designer of the plant for which the assembly is intended.

[ABB]

Низковольтные комплектные устройства (НКУ), вне всякого сомнения, являются частями электроустановок, которые наиболее подвержены непосредственному вмешательству оперативного, обслуживающего и т. п. персонала. Вот почему требования потребителей к безопасности НКУ становятся все выше и выше.

Соответствие НКУ современному положению дел и вследствие этого, гипотетически, соответствующим техническим стандартам, не может основываться только на том факте, что составляющие НКУ компоненты соответствуют современному состоянию дел и поэтому, по крайней мере, гипотетически, - соответствующим техническим стандартам

Другими словами, НКУ должно быть разработано, изготовлено и испытано в соответствии с современными требованиями.

Мы рассматриваем низковольтные комплектные устройства и это означает, что их номинальное напряжение не превышает 1000 В переменного тока или 1500 В постоянного тока. Что касается тока, то ни верхнее, ни нижнее значение стандартами, относящимися к данной области, не оговариваются

Стандарт МЭК 60439-1 устанавливает требования к конструкции, безопасности и техническому обслуживанию низковольтных комплектных устройств без учета их функций, полагая, что функции НКУ являются компетенцией проектировщиков электроустановки, частью которых эти НКУ являются.

[Перевод Интент]

Тематики
- НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)
Классификация
>>>
Действия
Синонимы
Сопутствующие термины
- изготовитель НКУ
EN
DE
- Schaltanlagen und/oder Schaltgeräte
FR
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > low voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
11 low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
1. НКУ распределения и управления
низковольтное устройство распределения и управления (НКУ)
Низковольтные коммутационные аппараты и устройства управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования, собранные совместно, со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями и конструктивными элементами.
[ ГОСТ Р МЭК 61439-1-2012]

низковольтное устройство распределения и управления
Комбинация низковольтных коммутационных аппаратов с устройствами управления, измерения, сигнализации, защиты, регулирования и т. п., полностью смонтированных изготовителем НКУ (под его ответственность на единой конструктивной основе) со всеми внутренними электрическими и механическими соединениями с соответствующими конструктивными элементами
Примечания
1. В настоящем стандарте сокращение НКУ используют для обозначения низковольтных комплектных устройств распределения и управления.
2. Аппараты, входящие в состав НКУ, могут быть электромеханическими или электронными.
3. По различным причинам, например по условиям транспортирования или изготовления, некоторые операции сборки могут быть выполнены на месте установки, вне предприятия-изготовителя.
[ ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000 ( МЭК 60439-1-92)]

EN

power switchgear and controlgear assembly (PSC-assembly)
low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly used to distribute and control energy for all types of loads, intended for industrial, commercial and similar applications where operation by ordinary persons is not intended
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
combination of one or more low-voltage switching devices together with associated control, measuring, signalling, protective, regulation equipment, etc., completely assembled under the responsibility of the manufacturer with all the internal electrical and mechanical interconnections and structural parts.
[IEC 61892-3, ed. 2.0 (2007-11)]

switchgear and controlgear
a general term covering switching devices and their combination with associated control, measuring, protective and regulating equipment, also assemblies of such devices and equipment with associated interconnections, accessories, enclosures and supporting structures
[IEV number 441-11-01]

switchgear and controlgear
electric equipment intended to be connected to an electric circuit for the purpose of carrying out one or more of the following functions: protection, control, isolation, switching
NOTE – The French and English terms can be considered as equivalent in most cases. However, the French term has a broader meaning than the English term and includes for example connecting devices, plugs and socket-outlets, etc. In English, these latter devices are known as accessories.
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

switchboard
A large single electric control panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted (either on the back or on the face, or both) switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and usually instruments; not intended for installation in a cabinet but may be completely enclosed in metal; usually is accessible from both the front and rear.
[ McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture & Construction]

switchboard
One or more panels accommodating control switches, indicators, and other apparatus for operating electric circuits
[ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]

FR

ensemble d'appareillage de puissance (ensemble PSC)
ensemble d'appareillage à basse tension utilisé pour répartir et commander l'énergie pour tous les types de charges et prévu pour des applications industrielles, commerciales et analogues dans lesquelles l'exploitation par des personnes ordinaires n'est pas prévue
[IEC 61439-2, ed. 1.0 (2009-01)]

appareillage, m
matériel électrique destiné à être relié à un circuit électrique en vue d'assurer une ou plusieurs des fonctions suivantes: protection, commande, sectionnement, connexion
NOTE – Les termes français et anglais peuvent être considérés comme équivalents dans la plupart des cas. Toutefois, le terme français couvre un domaine plus étendu que le terme anglais, et comprend notamment les dispositifs de connexion, les prises de courant, etc. En anglais, ces derniers sont dénommés "accessories".
[IEV number 826-16-03 ]

appareillage
terme général applicable aux appareils de connexion et à leur combinaison avec des appareils de commande, de mesure, de protection et de réglage qui leur sont associés, ainsi qu'aux ensembles de tels appareils avec les connexions, les accessoires, les enveloppes et les charpentes correspondantes
[IEV number 441-11-01]

A switchboard as defined in the National Electrical Code is a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted, on the face or back or both switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and, usually, instruments.
Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and are not intended to be installed in cabinets.
The types of switchboards, classified by basic features of construction, are as follows:
1. Live-front vertical panels
2. Dead-front boards
3. Safety enclosed boards( metal-clad)

[American electricians’ handbook]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

The switchboard plays an essential role in the availability of electric power, while meeting the needs of personal and property safety.

Its definition, design and installation are based on precise rules; there is no place for improvisation.

The IEC 61439 standard aims to better define " low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies", ensuring that the specified performances are reached.

It specifies in particular:

> the responsibilities of each player, distinguishing those of the original equipment manufacturer - the organization that performed the original design and associated verification of an assembly in accordance with the standard, and of the assembly manufacturer - the organization taking responsibility for the finished assembly;

> the design and verification rules, constituting a benchmark for product certification.

All the component parts of the electrical switchboard are concerned by the IEC 61439 standard.

Equipment produced in accordance with the requirements of this switchboard standard ensures the safety and reliability of the installation.

A switchboard must comply with the requirements of standard IEC 61439-1 and 2 to guarantee the safety and reliability of the installation.

Managers of installations, fully aware of the professional and legal liabilities weighing on their company and on themselves, demand a high level of safety for the electrical installation.

What is more, the serious economic consequences of prolonged halts in production mean that the electrical switchboard must provide excellent continuity of service, whatever the operating conditions.

[Schneider Electric]

НКУ играет главную роль в обеспечении электроэнергией, удовлетворяя при этом всем требованиям по безопасности людей и сохранности имущества.

Выбор конструкции, проектирование и монтаж основаны на чётких правилах, не допускающих никакой импровизации.

Требования к низковольтным комплектным устройствам распределения и управления сформулированы в стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000).

В частности, он определяет:

> распределение ответственности между изготовителем НКУ - организацией, разработавшей конструкцию НКУ и проверившей его на соответствие требованиям стандарта, и сборщиком – организацией, выполнившей сборку НКУ;

> конструкцию, технические характеристики, виды и методы испытаний НКУ.

В стандарте МЭК 61439 (ГОСТ Р 51321. 1-2000) описываются все компоненты НКУ.

Оборудование, изготовленное в соответствии с требованиями этого стандарта, обеспечивает безопасность и надежность электроустановки.

Для того чтобы гарантировать безопасность эксплуатации и надежность работы электроустановки, распределительный щит должен соответствовать требованиям стандарта МЭК 61439-1 и 2.

Лица, ответственные за электроустановки, должны быть полностью осведомлены о профессиональной и юридической ответственности, возложенной на их компанию и на них лично, за обеспечение высокого уровня безопасности эксплуатации этих электроустановок.

Кроме того, поскольку длительные перерывы производства приводят к серьезным экономическим последствиям, электрический распределительный щит должен обеспечивать надежную и бесперебойную работу независимо от условий эксплуатации.

[Перевод Интент]

LV switchgear assemblies are undoubtedly the components of the electric installation more subject to the direct intervention of personnel (operations, maintenance, etc.) and for this reason users demand from them higher and higher safety requirements.

The compliance of an assembly with the state of the art and therefore, presumptively, with the relevant technical Standard, cannot be based only on the fact that the components which constitute it comply with the state of the art and therefore, at least presumptively, with the relevant technical standards.

In other words, the whole assembly must be designed, built and tested in compliance with the state of the art.

Since the assemblies under consideration are low voltage equipment, their rated voltage shall not exceed 1000 Va.c. or 1500 Vd.c. As regards currents, neither upper nor lower limits are provided in the application field of this Standard.

The Standard IEC 60439-1 states the construction, safety and maintenance requirements for low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies, without dealing with the functional aspects which remain a competence of the designer of the plant for which the assembly is intended.

[ABB]

Низковольтные комплектные устройства (НКУ), вне всякого сомнения, являются частями электроустановок, которые наиболее подвержены непосредственному вмешательству оперативного, обслуживающего и т. п. персонала. Вот почему требования потребителей к безопасности НКУ становятся все выше и выше.

Соответствие НКУ современному положению дел и вследствие этого, гипотетически, соответствующим техническим стандартам, не может основываться только на том факте, что составляющие НКУ компоненты соответствуют современному состоянию дел и поэтому, по крайней мере, гипотетически, - соответствующим техническим стандартам

Другими словами, НКУ должно быть разработано, изготовлено и испытано в соответствии с современными требованиями.

Мы рассматриваем низковольтные комплектные устройства и это означает, что их номинальное напряжение не превышает 1000 В переменного тока или 1500 В постоянного тока. Что касается тока, то ни верхнее, ни нижнее значение стандартами, относящимися к данной области, не оговариваются

Стандарт МЭК 60439-1 устанавливает требования к конструкции, безопасности и техническому обслуживанию низковольтных комплектных устройств без учета их функций, полагая, что функции НКУ являются компетенцией проектировщиков электроустановки, частью которых эти НКУ являются.

[Перевод Интент]

Тематики
- НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)
Классификация
>>>
Действия
Синонимы
Сопутствующие термины
- изготовитель НКУ
EN
DE
- Schaltanlagen und/oder Schaltgeräte
FR
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
12 Well

[Wellington] — веллингтон (свита отдела леонард пермской системы, Среднеконтинентальный район)

* * *

скважина

to abandon a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to bean a well back — снижать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to bean a well up — повышать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to blow a well — открывать фонтанирующую скважину на короткое время (для удаления воды, песка);

to bring a well in — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to bump off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to case a well — обсаживать ствол скважины;

to complete a well — заканчивать скважину;

to dry up a well — откачивать жидкость из скважины;

to flow a well hard — эксплуатировать фонтанирующую скважину с максимально возможным дебитом;

to flush a well out — промывать скважину;

to hand off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to junk a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to kill a well — глушить скважину (уравновешивать пластовое давление);

to knife a well — чистить скважину (от парафина) скребками;

to line a well — обсаживать ствол скважины;

to mud a well up — подавать буровой раствор в скважину (после бурения с продувкой);

to place a well on choke — начинать дросселировать поток из скважины с помощью штуцера;

to plug up a well — устанавливать в скважину цементную пробку (с целью её ликвидации);

to pull a well — ликвидировать скважину с извлечением лифтовых труб и насосного оборудования;

to put a well on production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on the pump — 1. начинать насосную эксплуатацию скважины; 2. устанавливать насосный подъёмник в скважине

to rework a well — восстановить дебит скважины;

to rock a well — возбуждать приток в скважине попеременным открытием и закрытием устья;

to shoot a well — торпедировать скважину;

to shut down a well — консервировать скважину (в процессе строительства);

to shut in a well — закрывать скважину, останавливать скважину (устьевой задвижкой);

to strip a well — попеременно двигать колонны насосных штанг и лифтовых труб в скважине (для предотвращения скопления парафина);

to suspend a well — законсервировать строящуюся скважину;

to test a well — измерять дебит скважины;

to wake up a well — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to wash a well out — промывать скважину

well on the beam — скважина с насосным подъёмником

well on the pump — насосная скважина;

— abandoned well

— appraisal well

— barren well

— beam well

— beam-pumped well

— branched well

— cased well

— closed-in well

— cluster well

— commercial well

— completed well

— condensate well

— confirmation well

— controlled directional well

— cored well

— crooked well

— dead well

— development test well

— development well

— dewatering well

— directional well

— discovery well

— down-dip well

— drawn well

— dry well

— dual-completion well

— dual-zone well

— edge well

— exploratory well

— extension well

— flowing well

— gas lift well

— gas well

— head well

— high-flow-rate well

— horizontal well

— infill well

— injection well

— input well

— inspection well

— junked well

— key well

— killed well

— killer well

— line well

— marginal well

— multipay well

— multiple-completion well

— multiple-zone well

— noncommercial well

— nonproducing well

— observation well

— offset well

— offshore well

— oil well

— outpost extension well

— output well

— pipe well

— platform well

— pressure well

— pressure-relief well

— producing well

— production well

— prolific well

— pumped well

— pumping well

— relief well

— rod-line well

— sanded-up well

— sandy well

— satellite well

— shut-in well

— single well

— slanted well

— step-out well

— stratigraphic test well

— structure test well

— surging well

— suspended well

— temporarily abandoned well

— turnkey well

— underwater well

— wild well

— wildcat well

* * *

скважина; колодец

* * *

скважина

* * *

1) буровая скважина

2) резервуар; компенсационный колодец, отстойник, зумпф

•

well has stopped flowing naturally — скважина прекратила естественное фонтанирование;

well imperfect due of method of completion — скважина, несовершенная по способу заканчивания;

well in operation — действующая скважина;

well kicked off natural — скважина, начавшая фонтанировать без возбуждения, без тартания и без кислотной обработки;

well off — простаивающая скважина;

well on the beam — скважина с насосным подъёмником;

well on the pump — насосная скважина;

well out of control — открыто фонтанирующая скважина; скважина, фонтанирование которой не удается остановить ();

well out of operation — бездействующая скважина;

well put into production — скважина, введённая в эксплуатацию;

well set on packer — скважина, оборудования пакером;

to abandon a well — ликвидировать скважину ();

to bean a well back — снижать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to bean a well up — повышать дебит фонтанирующей скважины;

to blow a well — открывать фонтанирующую скважину на короткое время (<<для удаления воды>);

to blow a well clean — продувать скважину;

to bring a well in — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to bring in a well — ввести скважину в эксплуатацию;

to bump off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to cap a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to case a well — крепить скважину обсадными трубами, обсаживать ствол скважины;

to complete a well — 1) подготавливать скважину к эксплуатации 2) заканчивать скважину;

to drill a well — бурить скважину;

to drive a well — бурить скважину;

to dry up a well — откачивать жидкость из скважины;

to dual a well — 1) эксплуатировать одновременно два горизонта в скважине 2) использовать силовую установку одной скважины для эксплуатации другой;

to flow a well hard — эксплуатировать фонтанирующую скважину с максимально возможным дебитом;

to flush a well out — промывать скважину;

to get a well back on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию;

to go off a well — прекращать давать добычу ();

to hand a well off — прекращать насосную эксплуатацию скважины;

to hand off a well — отсоединять насосную скважину от группового привода;

to junk a well — ликвидировать скважину;

to kill a well — глушить скважину ( уравновешивать пластовое давление);

to knife a well — чистить скважину ( от парафина) скребками;

to line a well — крепить скважину обсадными трубами, обсаживать ствол скважины;

to mud a well up — подавать буровой раствор в скважину ( после бурения с продувкой);

to place a well on choke — начинать дросселировать поток из скважины с помощью штуцера;

to plug up a well — устанавливать в скважину цементную пробку ( с целью её ликвидации);

to prepare a well for production — подготавливать скважину к эксплуатации;

to pull a well — ликвидировать скважину с извлечением насосно-компрессорных труб и насосного оборудования;

to put a well — начинать откачивание ( скважины);

to put a well back on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well into production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on — открывать фонтанный штуцер ( для выпуска нефти);

to put a well on production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on stream — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to put a well on the pump — 1) начинать насосную эксплуатацию скважины 2) устанавливать насосный подъёмник в скважине;

to return a well on production — возвращать скважину в эксплуатацию; повторно вводить скважину в эксплуатацию;

to rework a well — восстановить дебит скважины;

to rock a well — возбуждать приток в скважине попеременным открытием и закрытием устья;

to shoot a well — торпедировать скважину;

to shut down a well — консервировать скважину ();

to shut in a well — закрывать скважину; останавливать фонтанирование; останавливать скважину ( устьевой задвижкой);

to start a well — приступать к бурению скважины;

to strip a well — попеременно двигать колонны насосных штанг и насосно-компрессорных труб в скважине ( для предотвращения скопления парафина);

to suspend a well — консервировать строящуюся скважину;

to test a well — измерять дебит скважины;

to test a well for production — испытывать скважину на приток;

to wake up a well — вызывать приток пластового флюида в скважину;

to wash a well into production — вводить скважину в эксплуатацию понижением уровня воды;

to wash a well out — промывать скважину;

well under control — скважина с закрытым фонтанированием

- abandoned well
- abandoned condensate well
- abandoned gas well
- abandoned oil well
- abandoned oil-and-gas well
- abnormal-pressure well
- absorption well
- Abyssinian well
- adjacent well
- adjoining well
- appraisal well
- artesian well
- barefooted well
- barren well
- base well
- beam well
- beam-pumped well
- belching well
- benchmark well
- blow well
- blowing well
- blowout well
- blue sky exploratory well
- borderline well
- bore well
- Braden head gas well
- breakthrough well
- breathing well
- brought-in well
- cable-tool well
- cased well
- cased-through well
- cemented-up well
- center well
- closed-in well
- close-spaced wells
- cluster well
- commercial well
- completed well
- condensate well
- confirmation well
- connected well
- controlled directional well
- converted gas-input well
- cored well
- corner well
- corrosive well
- cratering well
- crooked well
- curved well
- dead well
- declined well
- deep well
- deflected well
- development well
- development gas well
- development test well
- deviated well
- deviating well
- dewatering well
- directional well
- directionally drilled well
- discovery well
- disposal well
- diving well
- down-dip well
- drain-hole well
- drawn well
- drawned-out well
- drill well
- drill ship well
- drill ship center well
- drilled well
- drilled gas-input well
- drilled water-input well
- drilling well
- driven well
- drowned well
- dry well
- dual well
- dual-completion well
- dual-completion gas well
- dual-completion oil well
- dually-completed well
- dual-pumping well
- dual-zone well
- edge well
- exception well
- exhausted well
- exploratory well
- extension well
- field well
- field development well
- fill-in well
- flank well
- flooded well
- flowing well
- flowing producing oil well
- fresh-water well
- fully penetrating well
- gas well
- gas-injection well
- gaslift well
- geophysical well
- geothermal well
- gurgling well
- gusher well
- hand dog well
- head well
- high-flow-rate well
- high-pressure well
- horizontal well
- hydrodynamically imperfect well
- hydrodynamically perfect well
- hypothetical well
- image well
- imperfect well
- inactive well
- inclined well
- individual well
- infill well
- injection well
- injured well
- input well
- inspection well
- intake well
- intracontour well
- isolated-branched well
- jack well
- junked well
- key well
- kicking well
- killed well
- killer well
- leaking well
- line well
- low pressure well
- marginal well
- medium-depth well
- monitor well
- most probably well
- mudded well
- mudded-up well
- multipay well
- multiple-completion well
- multiple-string small diameter well
- multiple-zone well
- multistring well
- natural well
- neighboring well
- noncommercial well
- nonproducing well
- nonproductive well
- observation well
- off-pattern injection well
- off-structure well
- offset well
- offshore well
- oil well
- old well drilled deeper
- old well plugged back
- old well worked-over
- old abandoned well
- on-structure well
- on-the-beam well
- on-the-pump well
- open hole well
- orifice well
- out-of-control well
- outpost extension well
- output well
- overhauled well
- partially penetrating well
- paying well
- perfect well
- perforated well
- perimeter well
- piestic well
- pinch-out well
- pioneer well
- pipe well
- planned well
- platform well
- plugged-and-abandoned well
- pressure well
- pressure-observation well
- pressure-relief well
- producing well
- producing oil well
- producing oil-and-gas well
- production well
- prolific well
- prospect well
- pumped well
- pumper well
- pumping well
- pumping producing oil well
- purposely deviated well
- purposely slanted well
- quadruple completion well
- recipient wells
- recovery well
- relief well
- returned well to production
- rod-line well
- running well
- salt-dome well
- salt-up well
- salt-water well
- salt-water disposal well
- salt-water injection well
- sand well
- sand-clogged well
- sanded well
- sanded-up well
- sanding-up well
- sand-plugged well
- sand-producing well
- sand-up well
- sandy well
- satellite well
- seabed well
- selective water-injection well
- service well
- shallow well
- shut-in well
- shut-in gas well
- shut-in oil well
- side well
- single well
- single-completion well
- single-jacker well
- single-string well
- slanted well
- slim hole well
- special well
- staggered wells
- steam well
- steam-injection well
- step-out well
- straight well
- stratigraphic well
- stratigraphic test well
- stripped well
- stripper well
- strong well
- structure test well
- subsalt well
- sunken well
- superdeep well
- supply well
- surging well
- suspended well
- temporarily abandoned well
- temporarily shut-in well
- test well
- triple-completion well
- tubed well
- turnkey well
- twin well
- two-casing well
- two-string well
- ultradeep well
- underwater well
- unloading well
- unprofitable well
- untubed well
- upstream well
- vertical well
- waste disposal well
- water well
- water-dependent well
- water-disposal well
- water-free well
- water-injection well
- water-producing well
- water-supply well
- wet well
- wide-spaced wells
- wild well
- wild gas well
- wildcat well
- worked-over well
- workover well
* * *

веллингтон

Англо-русский словарь нефтегазовой промышленности > Well
13 well below

много ниже

The concentrations found were in all instances low and well below permissible concentrations for those trace metals where limiting values have been given by international regulating bodies. — Во всеx случаях обнаруженные концентрации были низкими и много ниже допустимых концентраций тEx металлических микроэлементов, на которые международными регулирующими органами были установлены предельные величины.

Англо-русский универсальный дополнительный практический переводческий словарь И. Мостицкого > well below
14 dumb well

1. дренажный колодец

wishing well — колодец или источник, где загадывают желания

the well is low — вода в колодце стоит на низком уровне

tunnel well — сборный колодец коридора гребного вала

to pump a well dry — выкачать всю воду из колодца

well foundation — фундамент из опускных колодцев

2. выгребная яма

square well — прямоугольная потенциальная яма

one-dimensional well — одномерная потенциальная яма

steep-sided well — потенциальная яма с крутыми стенками

sharp-cornered well — потенциальная яма с резкими краями

rounded-edge well — потенциальная яма с закругленными краями

English-Russian base dictionary > dumb well
15 wishing well

колодец или источник, где загадывают желания

the well is low — вода в колодце стоит на низком уровне

tunnel well — сборный колодец коридора гребного вала

to pump a well dry — выкачать всю воду из колодца

well foundation — фундамент из опускных колодцев

percolation well — шахтный безнапорный колодец

English-Russian base dictionary > wishing well
16 monitoring well

дозиметрический колодец

wishing well — колодец или источник, где загадывают желания

the well is low — вода в колодце стоит на низком уровне

tunnel well — сборный колодец коридора гребного вала

to pump a well dry — выкачать всю воду из колодца

well foundation — фундамент из опускных колодцев

English-Russian dictionary on nuclear energy > monitoring well
17 arc-proof low voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
1. НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги
НКУ с защитой от воздействия электрической дуги
комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
низковольтное комплектное устройство с защитой от электрической дуги
НКУ распределения и управления с защитой от электрической дуги
-
[Интент]

EN

arc-resistant switchgear
A type of switchgear design which is designed to withstand the effects of an internal arcing fault, without causing harm to personnel who are located in defined areas. It is not intended to withstand these internal arcing fault without possibly causing physical damage to the structure and/or components, but often the physical damage is less with an arc-resistant design.

There are three classes of protection:
Type A - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
Type B - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear during an internal arcing fault,
Type C - eliminates the emission of gases and particles from the front and sides of the switchgear, from between compartments within the same cell, and between adjacent cells during an internal arcing fault.

Arc-resistant switchgear has traditionally been metal-clad, but the basic concept could also be applied to other types of switchgear as well.

arc-proof switchgear
An incorrect term. Please refer to arc-resistant switchgear
[Schneider Electric]
[ http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/glossary-of-medium-voltage-switchgear-terms]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

If the electric arc occurs inside LV switchgear it generates internal overpressures and results in local overheatings which may cause high mechanical and thermal stresses in the equipment.

Besides, the involved materials can generate hot decomposition products, gases or fumes, which, due to the overpressure, are almost always ejected to the outside of the enclosure thus jeopardizing the operator safety.

The European Directive 2006/95/EC states the fundamental safety requirements for low voltage electric materials (from 50 V to 1000 V in alternating current, from 75 V to 1500 V in continuos current) to be put on the market within the European Community.

Among the essential safety requirements defined by this Directive particular importance is given to the need of taking technical measures to prevent “temperature rises, electric arcs or radiations which may result in hazards” from occurring.

This aspect has always been highly considered for apparatus, but it has been wrongly neglected for electrical switchgear and only in the last 10-15 years it has been catching on both at Italian as well as at international level.

Safety for the operator and for the installation in case of arcing inside LV switchgear can be obtained through three different design philosophies:
1. assemblies mechanically capable of withstanding the electric arc (passive protection)
2. assemblies equipped with devices limiting the effects of internal arcing (active protection)
3. assemblies equipped with current limiting circuitbreakers.

These three solutions (also combined together) have found a remakable development in the industrial field and have been successfully applied by the main manufacturers of LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies.

As it can be seen hereafter by examining the first two solutions, an “active” protection against arc faults is intrinsecally more complex than a “passive” one.

This because of the presence of additional electromechanical/ electronic devices5 which limit the arcing effects and which, by their nature, may be subject to faults or not-tripping.

[ABB]

Дуга, возникшая внутри НКУ, создает внутреннее избыточное давление и вызывает локальный перегрев, что может привести к воздействию на оборудование значительного механического напряжения и перепада температур.

Кроме того, под воздействием дуги различные материалы разлагаются на продукты, имеющие высокую температуру, в том числе газы и дым, которые почти всегда вырываются из оболочки НКУ под высоким давлением, подвергая опасности оперативный персонал.

Европейская директива 2006/95/EC определяет основные требования безопасности для низковольтного (от 50 до 1000 В переменного тока и от 75 до 1500 В постоянного тока) оборудования поставляемого на рынок Европейского Сообщества.

Одно из основных требований безопасности, определяемое данной директивой как наиболее важное, заключается в необходимости предпринять технические меры для предотвращения "подъема температуры, возникновения электрической дуги или излучения", которые могут причинить ущерб.

Данная проблема всегда учитывалась при создании различных аппаратов, но незаслуженно игнорировалась при разработке электрических комплектных устройств, и только в последние 10-15 лет ей стали уделять должное внимание как в Италии, так и во всем мире.

При возникновении электрической дуги внутри НКУ безопасность оператора и электроустановки обеспечивается тремя способами:
1. Конструкция НКУ должна выдерживать механические воздействия, возникающие при горении электрической дуги (пассивная защита).
2. НКУ должно быть оснащено устройствами, ограничивающими воздействие электрической дуги (активная защита)
3. НКУ должны быть оснащены токоограничивающими автоматическими выключателями.

Указанные три способа (применяемые совместно) получили дальнейшее развитие в промышленности и успешно применяются основными изготовителями НКУ распределения и управления.

Как будет показано далее при рассмотрении первых двух способов, активная защита от дуговых» неисправностей является более сложной, чем пассивная защита.

Это объясняется необходимостью использования дополнительных электромеханических или электронных устройств, задачей которых является ограничение воздействий дуги и которые сами могут оказаться неисправными и не сработать.

[Перевод Интент]

Тематики
- НКУ (шкафы, пульты,...)
Синонимы
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > arc-proof low voltage switchgear and controlgear assembly
18 to a fare-you-well

амер.; разг.

основательно, здорово, полностью, до конца

We're double-crossed to a fare-you-well. (J. London, ‘The Valley of the Moon’, book II, ch. VII) — Ну и основательно же нас надули.

Be pretty nice to have as low a number as that! Everybody'd say. ‘He must be an important guy! Wonder how he got it? I'll bet he wined and dined the superintendent of the Motor Licence Bureau to a fare-you-well’ (S. Lewis, ‘Babbitt’, ch. XXI) — А все-таки приятно иметь машину с одним из первых номеров! Всякий подумает: "Наверно, важная персона! Интересно, как ему это удалось? Наверняка, поил и кормил до отвала главного автоинспектора"

Everybody knows that one, but it sure takes Dan Blalock to tell it to a fare-you-well. (E. Caldwell, ‘This Very Earth’, ch. VII) — Эта история всем известна, но никто не умеет так здорово ее рассказывать, как Дан Блалок.

Large English-Russian phrasebook > to a fare-you-well
19 surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy is a well developed technique for the study of species at very low concentrations

Общая лексика: спектроскопия усиленного поверхностью резонансного КР - хорошо разработанный метод для изучения частиц при очень низких к

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy is a well developed technique for the study of species at very low concentrations
20 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

Страницы

См. также в других словарях:

Low-carbohydrate diet — Low carbohydrate diets or low carb diets are dietary programs that restrict carbohydrate consumption usually for weight control or for the treatment of obesity. Foods high in digestible carbohydrates (e.g. bread, pasta) are limited or replaced… … Wikipedia
Low German — Low Saxon Spoken in Germany, Denmark, Netherlands, United States, Canada Native speakers ≈5 million (date missing) Language fam … Wikipedia
The Next Food Network Star (season 4) — Winner Aaron McCargo, Jr. Original run June 1, 2008 – July 27, 2008 Filming dates February 2008 – March 2008 No. of episodes 9 No. of chefs 10 Previous Season 3 Next … Wikipedia
The Netherlands — The Netherlands † Catholic Encyclopedia ► The Netherlands (Germ. Niederlande; Fr. Pays Bas). The Netherlands, or Low Countries, as organized by Charles V, under whom the Burgundian era ended, comprised practically the territory… … Catholic encyclopedia
The High End of Low — Studio album by Marilyn Manson Released … Wikipedia
Low Mass — (called in Latin, Missa lecta, which literally means read Mass )[1][2][3] is a Tridentine Mass defined officially in the Code of Rubrics included in the 1962 edition of the Roman Missal as Mass in which the priest does not chant the parts that… … Wikipedia
Low-Income Housing Tax Credit — The Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC; often pronounced lye tech ) is a tax credit created under the Tax Reform Act of 1986 (TRA86) that gives incentives for the utilization of private equity in the development of affordable housing aimed at… … Wikipedia
Low (band) — Low Low playing in downtown Duluth, December 2004. From left to right: Alan Sparhawk, Mimi Parker, and Zak Sally (pictured on a monitor) Background information Origin Duluth, Minnesota … Wikipedia
The Vatican — The Vatican † Catholic Encyclopedia ► The Vatican This subject will be treated under the following heads: I. Introduction; II. Architectural History of the Vatican Palace; III. Description of the Palace; IV. Description of the… … Catholic encyclopedia
Low-density lipoprotein — (LDL) is a type of lipoprotein that transports cholesterol and triglycerides from the liver to peripheral tissues. LDL is one of the five major groups of lipoproteins; these groups include chylomicrons, very low density lipoprotein (VLDL),… … Wikipedia
Low Bap — is a sub genre of the Greek hip hop music scene, that emerged in the mid 1990s as the sound of the prominent Greek hip hop group Active Member. It s characterized by slower tempo and rapping than usual, often combined with lyrics of political… … Wikipedia

Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: с английского на все языки

the well is low

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Синонимы

EN

См. также в других словарях:

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: с английского на все языки

the well is low

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Классификация

Действия

Синонимы

Сопутствующие термины

EN

DE

FR

Тематики

Синонимы

EN

См. также в других словарях:

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка: